* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download Forum: Environment Issue: The question of limiting the production
Pathogenomics wikipedia , lookup
Site-specific recombinase technology wikipedia , lookup
Heritability of IQ wikipedia , lookup
Gene expression programming wikipedia , lookup
Ridge (biology) wikipedia , lookup
Genomic imprinting wikipedia , lookup
Quantitative trait locus wikipedia , lookup
Epigenetics of human development wikipedia , lookup
Nutriepigenomics wikipedia , lookup
Minimal genome wikipedia , lookup
Genome evolution wikipedia , lookup
Gene expression profiling wikipedia , lookup
Artificial gene synthesis wikipedia , lookup
Public health genomics wikipedia , lookup
Biology and consumer behaviour wikipedia , lookup
Genome (book) wikipedia , lookup
Designer baby wikipedia , lookup
Microevolution wikipedia , lookup
Genetically modified crops wikipedia , lookup
Genetic engineering wikipedia , lookup
History of genetic engineering wikipedia , lookup
Genetically modified organism containment and escape wikipedia , lookup
Forum: Environment Issue: The question of limiting the production and use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) Student officer: Nuša Muršič Position: President INTRODUCTION Food and feed generally originates from plants and animals grown and bred by humans for several thousand years. Over time, those plants and animals with the most desirable characteristics were chosen for breeding the next generations of food and feed. This was, for example, the case for plants with an increased resistance to environmental pressures such as diseases or with an increased yield. These desirable characteristics appeared through naturally occurring variations in the genetic make-up of those plants and animals. In recent times, it has become possible to modify the genetic make-up of living cells and organisms using techniques of modern biotechnology called gene technology. The genetic material is modified artificially to give it a new property (e.g. a plant's resistance to a disease, insect or drought, a plant's tolerance to a herbicide, improving a food's quality or nutritional value, increased yield). Such organisms whose genetic material has been altered (modification may include the mutation, deletion or insertion of genes from another species) to achieve characteristics that may be more desirable, such as bigger size or resistance to disease or bugs, longer shelf life, disease resistance or different colors or flavors) are called 'genetically modified organisms' (GMOs). Food and feed which contain or consist of such GMOs, or are produced from GMOs, are called 'genetically modified (GM) food or feed'. DEFINITION OF KEY TERMS Mutation of genes- is a permanent alteration in the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such that the sequence differs from what is found in most people. Mutations range in size; they can affect anywhere from a single DNA building block (base pair) to a large segment of a chromosome that includes multiple genes. Deletion of genes- is a mutation (a genetic aberration) in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is lost during DNA replication. Any number of nucleotides can be deleted, from a single base to an entire piece of chromosome Insertion of genes- is the addition of one or more nucleotide base pairs into a DNA sequence. Shelf life- is the length of time that a commodity may be stored without becoming unfit for use, consumption, or sale. In other words, it might refer to whether a commodity should no longer be on a pantry shelf (unfit for use), or just no longer on a supermarket shelf (unfit for sale, but not yet unfit for use). It applies to cosmetics, foods, medical devices, explosives, beverages, pharmaceutical drugs, chemicals, batteries, and many other perishable items. BACKGROUND INFORMATION WHY WERE GMOS INTRODUCED? GMOs were primarily introduced because one in eight people among the world’s growing population of seven billion do not have enough to eat, therefore new methods were searched to feed the hungry and malnourished around the world and especially in developing countries. WHERE ARE THEY USED? GMOs are widely used in food, especially in processed foods because staple crops such as soy beans and corn are nearly all modified. The National Center for Food and Agricultureal Policy estimates that 90 percent of U.S. corn is genetically modified. Other widely modified crops include canola oil, alfalfa and sugar beets. In addition to foods, GMOs are also today widely used in scientific research and pharmaceuticals as well. Organisms that have been genetically modified include micro-organisms such as bacteria and yeast, insects, plants, fish, and mammals. PROS AND CONS The dangers and benefits of GMOs are widely debated, but genetic modification is currently allowed in conventional farming. In fact, many organizations and studies estimate that possibly 70% or more of all processed foods sold to consumers now contain genetically modified ingredients. The main arguments that have been put forward against the use of GMOs in agriculture include: Potential negative effects on the environment •Genes can end up in unexpected places: Through 'gene escape' they can pass on to other members of the same species and perhaps other species. Genes introduced in GMOs are no exception, and interactions might occur at gene, cell, plant and ecosystem level. Problems could result if, for example, herbicide-resistance genes got into weeds. •Genes can mutate with harmful effect: It is not yet known whether artificial insertion of genes could destabilize an organism, encouraging mutations, or whether the inserted gene itself will keep stable in the plant over generations. There is no conclusive data on this issue. •'Sleeper' genes could be accidentally switched on and active genes could become 'silent': Organisms contain genes that are activated under certain conditions -- for example, under attack from pathogens or severe weather. When a new gene is inserted, a 'promoter' gene is also inserted to switch it on. This could activate a "sleeper" gene in inappropriate circumstances. This is especially relevant in long-lived organisms - such as trees. Sometimes the expression of genes is even "silenced" as a result of unknown interactions with the inserted gene. •Interaction with wild and native populations: GMOs could compete or breed with wild species. Farmed fish, in particular, may do this. GM crops could pose a threat to crop biodiversity, especially if grown in areas that are centres of origin of that crop. In addition, GM crops could compete with and substitute traditional farmers' varieties and wild relatives that have been bred, or evolved, to cope with local stresses. •Impact on birds, insects and soil biota: Potential risks to non-target species, such as birds, pollinators and micro-organisms, is another important issue. Nobody quite knows the impact of horizontal flow of GM pollen to bees' gut or of novel gene sequences in plants to fungi and soil and rumen bacteria. Besides, it is feared that widespread use of GM crops could lead to the development of resistance in insect populations exposed to the GM crops. Planting "refuge" areas with insect-susceptible varieties is advised to reduce the risk of insect populations evolving resistance due to the widespread growing of GMO Bt-crops. Potential negative effects on human health •Transfer of allergenic genes: These could be accidentally transferred to other species, causing dangerous reactions in people with allergies. •Mixing of GM products in the food chain: Unauthorized GM products have appeared in the food chain. For example, the GM maize variety Starlink, intended only for animal feed, was accidentally used in products for human consumption. •Transfer of antibiotic resistance: Genes that confer antibiotic resistance are inserted into GMOs as 'markers' to indicate that the process of gene transfer has succeeded. Concerns have been expressed about the possibility that these 'marker genes' could confer resistance to antibiotics. This approach is now being replaced with the use of marker genes that avoid medical or environmental hazards. Potential socio-economic effects •Loss of farmers' access to plant material: Biotechnology research is carried out predominantly by the private sector and there are concerns about market dominance in the agricultural sector by a few powerful companies. This could have a negative impact on small-scale farmers all over the world. •Intellectual property rights could slow research: The proprietary nature of biotechnology products and processes may prevent their access for public-sector research. This might have a stronger negative impact in developing countries where no private research initiatives are in place. In addition, most developing countries still do not provide patent protection to biotechnological products and technologies. Because patents have a national scope, the entry of products developed through proprietary biotechnologies could be prevented in those external markets where patent protection exists. •Impact of 'terminator' technologies: Although these are still under development and have not yet been commercialized, they would, if applied, prevent a crop from being grown the following year from its own seed. This means that farmers could not save seeds for planting the next season. Some believe that this technology, also known as the Technology Protection System, could have the advantage of preventing out-crossing of GM seeds. The arguments that have been put forward for the use of GMOs in agriculture include: Potential benefits for agricultural productivity •Better resistance to stress: If crops can be made more resistant to pest outbreaks, it would reduce the danger of crop failure. Similar benefits could result from better resistance to severe weather, such as frost, extreme heat or drought - although this would require manipulation of complex combinations of genes and appropriate pest management practices to avoid excessive selection pressure on the pest. •More nutritious staple foods: By inserting genes into crops such as rice and wheat, we can increase their food value, for inserting vitamin A. •More productive farm animals: Genes might be inserted into cattle to raise their milk yield, for example. Potential benefits for the environment •More food from less land: Improved productivity from GMOs might mean that farmers in the next century won't have to bring so much marginal land into cultivation. •GMOs might reduce the environmental impact of food production and industrial processes: Genetically engineered resistance to pests and diseases could greatly reduce the chemicals (insecticides, herbicides) needed for crop protection, and it is already happening. These developments could not only reduce environmental impact - they could also improve the health of farm and industrial workers. •Rehabilitation of damaged or less-fertile land: Large areas of cropland in the developing world have become saline by unsustainable irrigation practices. Genetic modification could produce salt-tolerant varieties. Trees might also be improved or modified to become more tolerant of salt and drought. They might also be selected or bred for rehabilitation of degraded land. This may also become possible through organisms bred to restore nutrients and soil structure. •Longer shelf lives: The genetic modification of fruits and vegetables can make them less likely to spoil in storage or on the way to market. This could expand trade opportunities as well as reduce massive wastage incurred in transport and supply. •Biofuels: Organic matter could be bred to provide energy. Plant material fuel, or biomass, has enormous energy potential. Potential benefits for human health •Investigation of diseases with genetic fingerprinting: 'Fingerprinting' of animal and plant diseases is already possible. This technique allows researchers to know exactly what an organism is by looking at its genetic blueprint. One benefit may be that veterinary staff can know whether an animal is carrying a disease or has simply been vaccinated - preventing the need to kill healthy animals. •Vaccines and medicines: Similar to the long-established development of biotechnological vaccines for humans, the use of molecular biology to develop vaccines and medicines for farm animals is proving quite successful and holds great promise for the future. Plants are being engineered to produce vaccines, proteins and other pharmaceutical products. This process is called 'pharming'. •Identification of allergenic genes: Although some are worried about the transfer of allergenic genes, molecular biology could also be used to characterize allergens and remove them. MAJOR PLAYERS INVOLVED The United States of America Compared to other countries, regulation of GMOs in the US is relatively favourable to their development. GMOs are an economically important component of the biotechnology industry, which now plays a significant role in the US economy. For example, the US is the world’s leading producer of genetically modified (GM) crops. In 2012, of the 170.3 million hectares of biotech crops globally, the United States accounted for 69.5 million, over 40% of the total. For several crops grown in the US, genetically engineered varieties now make up the vast majority of the crop. In 2013, 93% of the soy beans, 90% of the cotton, and 90% of the corn grown in the US were genetically engineered for either herbicide tolerance or insect resistance. European Union The European Union (EU) has in place a comprehensive and strict legal regime on genetically modified organisms (GMOs), food and feed made from GMOs, and food/feed consisting or containing GMOs. The EU’s legislation and policy on GMOs, based on the precautionary principle enshrined in EU and international legislation, is designed to prevent any adverse effects on the environment and the health and safety of humans and animals, and it reflects concerns expressed by sceptical consumers, farmers, and environmentalists. While marketing and importing GMOs and food and feed produced with GMOs are regulated at the EU level, the cultivation of GMOs is an area left to the EU Members. EU Members have the right to prohibit or restrict the sale or cultivation of approved GMOs based on adverse effects on health and the environment. A pending Commission proposal, as amended by the European Parliament, will give EU Members more flexibility to invoke socio-economic grounds and impacts on local or regional environments when imposing such measures. POTENTIAL SOLUTIONS There are widespread calls around the world for post-market surveillance systems to monitor for possible long-term health and environmental effects of genetically modified foods (EU, UK, and NAS websites). The United Kingdom’s Food Standards Agency plans to monitor consumption patterns of genetically modified foods and to match them to data on Birth defects, cancer incidence, diabetes and other diseases. Along with a surveillance program, the European Union is in the process of designing a mandatory traceability program (tracking GMOs and GM food/feed products at all stages of the supply chain) for all GM foods grown in and imported into Europe. Both of these programs involve mandatory labelling of GM food products. In the absence of any reliable physiological tests to detect genetically modified foods in the body postconsumption, food labelling is the only way for consumers and regulators to know which GM foods are being consumed and in what quantities. In the US, the National Academy of Sciences has called for a similar surveillance program (NAS website). The US government opposes a mandatory labelling and food traceability program on the basis that there is no threat to public health by GM foods and that it would be too costly to industry. However, consumer demand for traceability and labelling may cause manufacturers to adopt these practices on their own. USEFUL LINKS http://ec.europa.eu/food/plant/gmo/traceability_labelling/index_en.htm http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo8.htm http://www.fao.org/english/newsroom/focus/2003/gmo7.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/x9602e/x9602e07.htm#TopOfPage http://www.fao.org/biotech/logs/C9/summary.htm http://www.fao.org/docrep/014/i1905e/i1905e03.pdf http://www.gmeducation.org/government-and-corporations/p207350-un-s-food-and-agricultureorganisation-issues-gmo-warning.html http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetically-modified-organisms-gmos-transgeniccrops-and-732 http://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/topics/topic/gmo