Download Discussion 1: Theory - UCI Social Sciences

Discussion 1: Theory
Definition
a
scientific theory is a set of related
assumptions that allows scientists to use
logical deductive reasoning to formulate
testable hypotheses.
Components of the definition

a set of related assumptions

a set of related assumptions

a set of related assumptions

logical deductive reasoning

testable
Example

cognitive dissonance theory

cognitive dissonance: uncomfortable feeling or stress
caused by holding two contradictory ideas
simultaneously.

"dissonant" vs. "consonant"

the theory of cognitive dissonance proposes that people
have a fundamental cognitive drive to reduce this
dissonance by modifying an existing belief, or rejecting
one of the contradictory ideas.
A set of relevant assumptions

1)the introduction of a new cognition that is dissonant with a
currently held cognition creates a state of "dissonance"

2) the magnitude of the “dissonance” relates to the relative
importance of the involved cognitions

3) dissonance can be reduced either by eliminating dissonant
cognitions, or by adding new consonant cognitions.

4) the maximum possible dissonance is equal to the resistance to
change of the less "resistant cognition"; therefore, once dissonance
reaches a certain level, one of the dissonant cognition will be
changed or eliminated, and dissonance will be reduced.

Q: Are they relevant? Are they directly testable?
Logical deductive reasoning

human beings, when persuaded to lie without
being given sufficient justification, will carry out
the task by convincing themselves of the
falsehood, rather than telling a bald lie

Q: Does it flow from the previous assumptions?
Is it testable?
Test: through empirical research

Festinger’s experiment

students were made to perform tedious and
meaningless tasks

participants rated these tasks very negatively.

after a long period of doing this, students were
told the experiment was over and they could
leave.

however, the experimenter then asked the subject for a
small favor.

the participant was asked to fill in as a research assistant
and try to persuade another subject that the dull, boring
tasks the subject had just completed were actually
interesting and engaging.

some participants were paid $20 for the favor, another
group was paid $1, and a control group was not
requested to perform the favor.

when asked to rate the peg-turning tasks later,
those in the $1 group rated them more positively
than those in the $20 group and control group.

Q: Is this explainable by the cognitive
dissonance theory? How is the result related to
the theory?
More than one testable hypotheses

other ways of forming the hypotheses

people who feel dissonance will seek
information that will reduce dissonance and
avoid information that will increase dissonance

people who are involuntarily exposed to
information that increases dissonance are likely
to discount that information, either by ignoring it,
misinterpreting it, or denying it.
Why different theories?
 alternate
theories exist because the very
nature of a theory allows the theorist to
make speculations from a particular point
of view.
 observations
are colored by the individual
observer’s frame of reference, so there
may be many diverse theories.
What makes a theory useful

generates research: generates a number of hypotheses
that can be investigated through research.



descriptive research
hypothesis testing
organizes data into a meaningful structure, provides an
explanation for the results, and help ask further
questions.


Integrate knowledge into an intelligible framework
shape as many bits of information as possible into arrangement
What makes a theory useful

falsifiable: can be confirmed or disconfirmed


be precise enough
negative research results: refute the theory; suggest discard or
modify it

guides action: provide the practitioner with a guide to
action

internally consistent



components logically compatible
consistent use of language
parsimonious: be as simple as possible
Dimensions of personality

determinism vs. free choice

pessimism vs. optimism

causality vs. teleology

conscious vs. unconscious determinants of behavior

biological vs. social influences on personality

uniqueness vs. similarities
Personality assessment

personality inventories

reliability: does it yield consistent result?

validity: does it measure what it intends to measure?
• Construct validity: the extent to which an instrument
measures some hypothetical construct such as intelligence,
extraversion, etc.



Convergent validity
Divergent validity
Discriminant validity
• Predictive validity: the extent that a test predicts future.