Download Climate Change Impact Assessment 2010

Sydney Catchment Authority
Climate Change Impact Assessment
2010
Blue Mountains Catchments
Greaves Creek
Dam
Medlow
Dam
SCA’s
drinking water
catchments
Woodford
Dam
Cascade
Dams
Lithgow
Haw
kes
bu
ry
R
xs River
Co
r
ive
Katoomba
Prospect
Reservoir
Warragamba
Dam
Pipelines
Sydney
nR
Wo
ro
n
a
pe
Ko
wm
un
Ne
Lake
Burragorang
Upp
gR
ive
r
er C
ana
l
Prospect Water
Filtration Plant
aR
or
iver
ive
r
Woronora
Dam
Broughtons Pass Weir
Pheasants Nest Weir
tai
Nat
ec
er
Riv
Wing
a r ri b
ee
R
Crookwell
ly
dil
on
o ll
W
Goulburn
r
Rive
iver
Bowral
Nepean
Dam
Cataract
Dam
Avon
Dam
Wingecarribee
Reservoir
Fitzroy Falls
Reservoir
Lake Yarrunga
Bendeela Pondage
Nowra
r
ive
Sh
oa
lha
ve
n
R
Tallowa
Dam
Canberra
Wollongong
Cordeaux
Dam
Braidwood
Sydney Catchment Authority
Drinking water catchments
Pumping station
Canals and pipelines
Dam
Cooma
Contents
Executive summary
1
Introduction
2
Climate change projections
3
4
5
2
6
7
2.1
Climate projections for Sydney region
9
2.2
Climate scenarios used in this study 10
Mitigation strategies
Climate change hazards and impacts Adaptation
12
13
14
5.1
Tools and systems
15
5.2
Water quantity
16
5.3
Water quality
17
5.4
Environment
18
5.5
Land use
19
5.6
Infrastructure
20
5.7
Supply chain
22
5.8
Business
22
5.9
Regulation and relationships 24
6
Conclusion
References
Acronyms
Contact information
26
27
28
30
Executive Summary
Changes in climatic conditions – in the form of increased climate variability,
longer-term averages, altered rainfall distributions, increased frequency and/
or intensity of extreme weather-related events – are likely to have broadranging implications for the Sydney Catchment Authority (SCA). A
comprehensive climate change impact assessment completed by the SCA in
2010 has emphasised the complexity of the interrelations between water
quantity, water quality and catchment condition, and highlighted the
potential impacts of climate change on SCA operations, infrastructure,
business and regulation.
The climate futures used in this assessment are based on recent climate
projections covering SCA catchment areas. Projections of future climate have
large uncertainties because current models are unable to capture the
complexity of feedback mechanisms in the earth-atmosphere-hydrosphere
system. Although the science of climate modelling is rapidly improving,
models and projections at best present a range of possible futures to
consider in scenario and business planning. Such known uncertainty requires
the SCA to be adaptable to rapid change and apply ongoing sustainable and
flexible business practices to ensure resilience to changes in climate and
other external forces.
The impact assessment considered two future climate scenarios with higher
temperatures and more variable rainfall patterns, and identified and
prioritised impacts via a series of structured internal workshops. Groups of
SCA specialists then identified current activities or controls that partially
mitigate the potential impacts, and also developed a range of responses that
could be considered in the future.
The assessment found that overall, the SCA has a high degree of
preparedness for many of the potential impacts of climate change. Water
resource managers in Australia have historically had to deal with a high
degree of climatic and hydrologic variability. The SCA has identified a number
of business areas where improved planning, additional investment and backup systems could assist in building adaptive capacity and business resilience.
It was noted that external forces such as population growth, changes in
government policy and investment in source diversification for purposes
other than climate change may impact on the SCA sooner than climate
change itself. The impact assessment found that additional investments in infrastructure,
modelling, tools and preparedness would assist in building adaptive capacity
and business resilience. Scenario exercises based on a range of climate and
population projections would inform strategic planning and prepare the SCA
for expanded business opportunities. The findings of the assessment have
already been built into the SCA’s business planning as part of the Corporate
Sustainability Strategy that provides the SCA’s strategic direction for the next
five years.
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Assessment 2010
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Climate change actions
Action 1 – Ensuring climate change scenarios are realistic
The SCA will work with other government agencies and research providers to
expand and improve climate modelling to encompass a broader range of
climate scenarios and simulate multi-year climatic fluctuations.
Although the science of climate modelling is improving rapidly, models and
projections at best present a wide range of possible futures to guide business
planning. Current projections of future climate scenarios have large
uncertainties because of changing estimates on emission levels, differences
between the global climate models, problems in the simulation of realistic
flood and drought cycles (hydrologic persistence), and the inability of current
climate models to capture the complexity of feedback mechanisms in the
earth- atmosphere- hydrosphere system. Action 2 – Reducing the SCA’s carbon footprint
The SCA will continue to investigate and improve energy efficiency, expand
hydroelectric generation and assess the business benefits of carbon offsets as
part of its sustainability strategy.
Much attention is being placed on the development of adaptation strategies
to deal with the impacts of climate change. There is still the opportunity to
influence the direction and magnitude of the outcomes by reducing the
scale of greenhouse gas emissions. Action 3 – Quantifying the impact of climate change on water
quantity and quality The SCA will review its existing models as well as a new generation of
software to assess their performance under climate change scenarios.
The SCA relies heavily on predictive models and analytical tools to inform
catchment and reservoir management decisions and early warning systems.
A changing climate will challenge the validity of many of these tools, as it
may drive events which are beyond our historical experience and therefore
outside of the calibration range of our existing models. As climate change is
likely to fundamentally alter previously assumed land and water relationships,
more rigorous calibrations and testing of the models is needed under a
variety of climate change scenarios.
Action 4 – Increasing flexibility in the water supply system
The SCA will investigate increasing the flexibility in the water supply system,
including increased capacity to transfer water between different parts of the
supply system.
Greater flexibility would significantly enhance the SCA’s ability to cope with
projected changes in the distribution of rainfall (wetter in coastal and drier in
inland parts of the SCA catchments) as well as increased water quality risks
(eg increased risk of cyanobacteria blooms caused by longer drought periods,
higher temperatures and more intensive rainfall events). SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
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Action 5 – Improving SCA’s capacity to monitor short-duration
events
The SCA will increase the emphasis on event-based sampling, offset by
reduced effort in routine sampling.
Most climate change projections are indicating increased storm activity and
high intensity rainfall in summer between extended dry periods. This is likely
to result in more rapid and more extreme changes in water quality, and more
complex behaviour shifts in reservoir hydrodynamics. Monitoring of extreme
events (both very low and very high flows) has always been challenging and
yet will become even more important as this data is needed to help improve
modelling capabilities and calibrations.
Action 6 – Reviewing strategies and plans for sensitivity to
climate change scenarios
The SCA will review its corporate strategies and plans of management to
ensure sensitivity to climate change scenarios.
Climate changes are likely to have a broad impact on catchment and stream
health, and on the relative contributions of pollutants across the different
sources, and accelerate changes in land use and regional development.
Evaluation of the impact of land uses and the interventions implemented
through the Healthy Catchment Strategy are likely to be confounded by
climate changes, while the plans of management for Special Areas should be
expanded to take into account climate change implications.
Action 7 – Reviewing design specifications of existing critical
infrastructure
The SCA will instigate an ongoing program for the review of design
specifications of existing infrastructure, plant and equipment to assess its
vulnerability to extreme events such as storms, fires and floods.
A change in rainfall patterns and more severe storm events could impact a
wide range of SCA infrastructure, including critical control systems at dams,
pumping stations, control structures and monitoring and
telecommunications systems. More frequent and/or higher intensity
bushfires can also threaten infrastructure.
Action 8 – Building explicit consideration of climate change
into new business initiatives and project designs
SCA will embed considerations relevant to climate change into its planning
and business processes. The SCA’s sustainability framework has opportunities
to align climate change resilience with forward planning.
Climate change impacts on supply and water quality will increase the need to
justify project expenditure as well as put pressure on revenues. SCA business
cases, which are already required to include sustainability criteria, should
address climate related risks and demonstrate their potential to improve
business resilience. Business cases should also explore alternative funding
options and economic models.
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Action 9 – Increasing preparedness to manage concurrent or
extreme incidents
The SCA will improve its workforce’s adaptive capacity and responsiveness by
investing in skills training and professional development for its staff.
Preparedness for managing extreme or concurrent incidents is a business
reality.
Higher temperature and more severe storms are likely to lead to an increase
in the number and complexity of declared incidents. During a concurrent or
extreme incident key infrastructure would challenge operating procedures
and organisational resilience. The SCA’s incident response and scenario-based
contingency planning are well developed. The SCA will increase its attention
to incident management, business continuity and disaster recovery planning
to ensure that Sydney’s raw drinking water is managed to international best
practice.
Action 10 – Improving communication and knowledge
exchange on climate change
The SCA will be proactive in communicating with catchment communities
and the broader Sydney community regarding the impacts of climate
change.
Changes in security of supply, water source management and water quality
resulting from climate change could impact on public confidence in the
SCA’s ability to deliver reliable quality water. New or expanded outreach
programs will be needed to manage community expectations of water
quality and supply issues.
Adapting to climate change will require changes in land practices and
probably catchment development controls. The SCA will need to support
local councils and landholders to understand the changing circumstances
and the impacts on water and the environment, and provide assistance in
making the required changes to legislation and best management practices. SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
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1 Introduction
Climate change challenges the traditional assumption that past
hydrological experience provides a good guide to future conditions 1
The water supply system managed by the SCA and its predecessors has
developed in response to the variable climate of the Sydney region and
steady population growth. The Metropolitan Water Plan (MWP) 2004 and
subsequent revisions comprise an adaptive, integrated approach to water
management through a combination of diversification of supply and
demand management. A collaborative study on the projected impact of
climate change on supply and demand has been undertaken under the
auspices of the MWP. However, risks imposed by climate change are much
wider than covered in the MWP study, in particular with respect to land use,
water quality and infrastructure. Sydney Water has conducted a climate
change risk assessment of its operations (SWC, 2008), as have other utilities.
Although many operational areas of the SCA have implicitly considered the
effects of climate change and variability in their business plans, this effort has
not been coordinated or updated with the latest climate projections.
To assess the broader implications of climate change on the SCA, a
comprehensive climate change impact assessment was conducted between
August 2009 and February 2010. The assessment involved a series of
workshops with 30 senior staff from across the organisation, preceded by
seminars on the science of climate change. The workshops were designed to
assess the current understanding of climate change within the SCA,
determine climate assumptions built into operations and planning, and
explore the sensitivity of business operations to projections of climatic
extremes that lie outside those previously experienced.
About 1000 potential impacts were identified, and later consolidated into 171
hazard and impact statements in nine categories: water quantity, water
quality, tools and systems, infrastructure, environment, land use, supply chain,
business, and regulation and relationships. Focussed workshops with key staff
from SCA business units then reviewed the climate impacts, assessed current
controls and developed a range of management actions that could reduce
any potential climate impacts. SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
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1 Climate Change and Water, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2008, 192 pp
2 Climate change projections
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was set up by the
World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environment
Programme in 1988 to summarise and assess the vast array of peer-reviewed
scientific literature on climate change. The IPCC published assessment reports
in 1990, 1995, 2001 and 2007. To standardise assumptions of greenhouse
gases for climate modelling, the IPCC prepared a series of future emission
scenarios for use in the third and fourth assessments.
The Fourth IPCC Assessment (IPPC-4), Climate Change 2007, is the most
definitive in terms of linking observed climate change to anthropogenic
(human-induced) generation of greenhouse gases. An IPCC 2008 technical
paper, Climate Change and Water, focuses on the impact of projected climate
change on the world’s freshwater systems.
Implications of the 2001 IPPC-3 findings for Australia were summarised in
Climate Change in Australia, published in 2007 (CSIRO, 2007a). Areas most at
risk were identified as the Murray-Darling Basin, Great Barrier Reef and
southwest Western Australia, with broad-scale projections including a 40%
higher chance of drought in eastern Australia by 2070.
The NSW Greenhouse Office, now part of the Department of Environment,
Climate Change and Water (DECCW), commissioned CSIRO to assess
projected changes in average climate and climate extremes for NSW over the
next 70 years based on modelling outputs from the 2007 CSIRO study, which
in turn was based on the 2001 IPPC assessment. A series of individual reports
on the impact of climate change for individual Catchment Management
Authorities in NSW were also published (CSIRO 2007b). These projections are
based on 200 km grid cells and are unable to provide the resolution needed
for regional studies required by the SCA.
In 2009 DECCW commissioned the University of NSW to develop regionallevel climatic projections of temperature and rainfall for nine State Plan
regions of NSW for the year 2050. The NSW Climate Impact Profile forms part of
Action in a Changing Climate (CCAP) which describes actions to be taken over
the next five years to respond to the challenge of climate change. The
projections are based on a modelling grid size of 200 km to 300 km with
interpolation down to 50 km x 50 km, and have high uncertainties around
coastal regions.
The consensus of climate scientists is that many areas of Australia are already
showing evidence of the effects of climate change, for instance decades of
reduced rainfall and runoff in the Murray-Darling Basin and southwest
Western Australia. The unprecedented high temperatures which contributed
to the severity of the February 2009 bushfires in Victoria was also a clear
climate change signal. However the data for the Sydney region is more
equivocal and average rainfall has not been too different from long-term
averages. It is instructive to note that the climate in Sydney’s catchment areas
is influenced by interactions between southern circulation patterns driven by
the Southern Annual Mode (SAM) over Antarctica, Indian Ocean sea surface
temperatures, and northern circulation patterns more closely correlated with
the El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO). This interaction is more complex
than climate drivers in the north or south of the country. Note, also, that
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rainfall is more difficult to model than other climatic parameters such as air
pressure and temperature.
The most recent IPCC-4 report is based on peer-reviewed scientific papers
that are now at least five years old. The most recent scientific data indicates
that greenhouse gas emissions and global warming observations are tracking
on or above the worse-case scenario considered by the IPCC in its 2007
report.
Regional climate models
The climate projections contained in the IPCC reports are calculated using
large-scale three-dimensional models with grid cells of 200 km to 300 km.
More detailed downscaled models are required to model climate on the finer
scale required for water supply planning at a catchment level. Such models
are complex and require large amounts of computing power.
Modelling recently undertaken by the CSIRO and University of NSW (NSW
Office of Water, 2010) for the SCA as part of the climate change supplydemand component of the MWP is downscaled to a 4 km grid size which
better captures local topographic and mesoclimate effects.
Limitations in climate modelling
Climate projections are presented as a range or distribution of possible
climates – temperature and average or seasonal rainfall – that are plausible
under future greenhouse gas scenarios.
One of the dangers in using the outputs from climate models is the adoption
of unrealistic expectations of the accuracy or certainty of the climate
projections. Even when ranges for model runs are given (eg temperatures
vary from +0.2°C to +5.6°C), there is a natural, but incorrect, tendency to
assume the central value as ‘most likely’. More importantly, global climate models cannot yet reproduce inter-decadal
cycles such as driven by ENSO events, and cannot reproduce multi-year
droughts and extended periods of higher rainfall. Consequently, most runoff/
yield studies make assumptions in the degree of year-to-year correlation, or
‘persistence’ in future climates. In the MWP Sydney study it is assumed that
the future persistence is similar to that observed in the historical (100-year)
record in the absence of more appropriate climate models. The resultant
‘system yield’ is strongly dependent on the assumed persistence.
Climate extremes and variability
At a local level, it is difficult to distinguish between climate variability and
climate change. In areas such as south-eastern Australia, natural climate
variability exhibits wide fluctuations year-to-year and decade-to-decade
compared to long-term trends projected in climate change scenarios (Figure
1). SCA Climate Change Impact
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Figure 1. Time series of mean annual maximum temperature anomalies in NSW
between 1950 and 2003. The red and blue bars are percentage of NSW in the top
(hot - red) and bottom (cold - blue) deciles compared to the average between
1961 and 1990 (from Climate Change in New South Wales: Hennessy et al, 2004a).
2.1 Climate projections for Sydney region
The most detailed climate study at the scale required by the SCA is the
Climate change impacts on water supply and demand in Sydney (NSW Office of
Water, 2010), which was conducted as part of the MWP. Examples of climate projections from this study include:
• Increase in rainfall and streamflow in metropolitan catchments.
• Reduced rainfall and streamflow in Warragamba and Shoalhaven
catchments.
• Increase in summer rainfall due to stronger onshore airflows, slight
decrease in winter.
• Number of days of extreme rainfall (>40mm/day) increases by 45% in
summer.
• Increase in frequency of continued dry spells (15 days or more).
• Double in frequency of hot (>32°C) and very hot (>37°C ) days.
• Evaporation increases by 10% with double the number of very high
evaporation days.
The most serious limitations of this study are that results are based on a single
global climate model, and the assumption that ‘persistence’ (year-to-year
correlation) is similar to the historical record. Other studies relevant to the SCA catchment area include Rainfall extremes
under climate change conducted by the CSIRO for the Sydney Metropolitan
Catchment Management Authority (CMA) and partners (Abbs, in prep), and
NSW Climate Impact Profile (DECCW, in prep). These studies on the
anticipated effects of climate change in eastern NSW and locally in the
Sydney region demonstrate the wide scatter in climatic variables that arise
from climate modelling and the inherent uncertainties in climate projections.
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The SCA’s system yield projections are based on historical hydrological
records which are unrepresentative under climate change scenarios. On the
other hand, current projections of future climate scenarios (including recent
climate modelling undertaken for the MWP) are subject to large uncertainties
for a number of reasons including:
• inability to simulate realistic flood and drought cycles (hydrologic
persistence) • changing estimates on emission levels
• differences between the global climate models
• inability of current climate models to capture the complexity of feedback
mechanisms in the earth- atmosphere- hydrosphere system. A major knowledge gap exists on the evaluation and selection of climate
models and downscaling techniques for the SCA catchment areas. A single
climate model was used in the MWP climate study, and the model outputs
could not simulate multi-year correlations (persistence) of drought and rain
periods. As climatic modelling tools are continually improving, this will likely
be an area of ongoing research effort for the SCA, working with other
agencies and industry bodies as appropriate.
Although the science of climate modelling is improving rapidly, models and
projections at best present a wide range of possible futures to guide business
planning.
Climate Change Action 1 – Ensuring
climate change scenarios are realistic
SCA Corporate Sustainability Strategy key focus area:
Stakeholder relationships
The SCA will work with other government agencies and research
providers to expand and improve climate modelling to
encompass a broader range of climate scenarios and simulate
multi-year climatic fluctuations and a focus on year-to-year
drought and rainfall correlations.
2.2 Climate scenarios used in this study
Two representative climate change scenarios were developed for SCA’s
climate change impact assessment. Each scenario is a plausible climatic
condition that could arise at some time during the next 50 years. The
scenarios are sufficiently different to current climate to challenge ‘business as
usual’ and are within the range of projected impacts.
Scenario 1 – Warmer and stormier – was designed to explore the full range of
impacts, both internal and external, that could affect the organisation in a
changing climate.
Scenario 2 – Hot, dry and stormy – is more extreme but still plausible, and
was used to test the completeness of the list of impacts identified in Scenario 1.
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Assessment 2010
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Scenario 1: Warmer and stormier
• Increasing frequency of east coast lows but extended periods of dry
westerly winds.
• Similar average annual rainfall but longer dry spells.
• Heavier rainfall from storm events during summer.
• Hotter weather, higher evaporation rates.
Temperature
Rainfall
Evapotranspiration
Wind
Increase by 3°C on
average
Similar average as
10% increase in summer Summer peak
current climate, but
and spring
wind speeds
increase in summer
increase by 10%
rainfall and decrease in
winter rainfall
Higher maxima and
higher minima
Spatial redistribution –
more coastal rainfall
Heat waves (>35oC)
twice as common
Extended dry spells
Double number of high
evaporation days
Increased number of
consecutive days of
light rain
Scenario 2: Hot, dry and stormy
• Clear climate shift, weather systems move south.
• More severe El Nino periods bring much hotter weather and extended
droughts.
• Increase in Tasman highs brings more intense but infrequent storm
events.
• Coastal dominated weather systems, with more storm events in summer.
• Very dry inland.
Temperature
Rainfall
Increase average by
6°C
20% decrease in total
rainfall, but increase in
proportion that falls in
intense, short bursts
Evapotranspiration
Wind
20% increase in summer Peak wind
and spring
speeds increase
by 30%
More intense and
Spatial redistribution
frequent heat waves – increased coastal
rainfall (metropolitan
dams) in summer and
autumn. Decrease in
Shoalhaven catchment. Very dry inland
Higher maximum
and higher minimum temperatures
Longer dry spells,
multi-year droughts
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3 Mitigation strategies
While much attention is now being placed on the development of
adaptation strategies to deal with the impact of climate change, there is still
significant opportunity to influence the direction and magnitude of the
outcomes by reducing the scale of greenhouse gas emissions. Mitigation
strategies are increasingly reflected in government policy with resultant
impacts on carbon pricing, renewable energy targets, and electricity and fuel
costs.
As part of its sustainability strategy, the SCA is already seeking to expand its
use of hydroelectricity plants to reduce its dependence on carbon fuel
energy, investigating improvements in energy efficiency and investigating
business opportunities for carbon offsets. Climate Change Action 2 – Reducing the
SCA’s carbon footprint SCA Corporate Sustainability Strategy key focus area:
Resource optimisation
The SCA will continue to investigate and improve energy
efficiency, expand hydroelectric generation and assess the
business benefits of carbon offsets. The environmental footprint
of SCA’s workforce could be improved by the use of tele- and
video-conferencing and, where appropriate, active
encouragement of telecommuting and other initiatives to
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
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4 Climate change hazards and impacts
Climate change impacts can be analysed at a number of levels. At the highest
level are the primary climatic variables (eg temperature, rainfall, evaporation,
wind) that lead to a secondary hazard (eg increased bushfires, short intense
storms) which will generate a range of resource and business implications (eg
increased erosion and turbidity, greater bushfire damage). The final level
encompasses management and cost implications on the SCA and its
stakeholders (eg agreements with the Rural Fire Service, disruptions to power
supplies and telecommunications, impacts on public safety).
Primary climatic
hazard
• Increased
temperatures and
temperature variability
• Changes in rainfall
distribution,
frequency and
variability
• Extreme weather
events – changes in
frequency and
severity of floods,
fires, high winds
and lightning
Secondary hazard
Implications
• Drier soils leading to
changes in rainfallrunoff relationships
• Increased bushfire
risk
• Higher erosion rates
increase sediment
load and turbidity
• Increased nutrient
loads and more
frequent algal
blooms
• Increased need for
fire-fighting
resources
• Interruptions to
communications
• Electricity
disruptions and
pumping station
shutdowns
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Assessment 2010
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5 Adaptation
The term ‘adaptation’ in the context of the SCA climate impact study refers to
actions that can be taken by the SCA to increase its preparedness to deal with
climate change impacts as and when they arise. These actions must be
designed to build organisational resilience to increased variability, severity
and unpredictability of events related to changes in climate. Adaptation also
includes actions that can be taken by the SCA to achieve sustainable business
outcomes in response to, and in anticipation of, government, economic and
social change that could occur as a result of climate change. Some of these
actions are already part of routine business; others require additional
investment or negotiation with external agencies.
The adaptation responses were developed through a series of nine focussed
workshops where specialists in relevant SCA business units critically reviewed
the potential impacts and identified existing controls or actions that should
lessen or partially address the impact across nine theme areas:
1. Tools and systems
2. Water quantity
3. Water quality
4. Environment
5. Land use
6. Infrastructure
7. Supply chain
8. Business
9. Regulation and relationships
Workshop participants also identified additional actions or responses that
could be considered in the future, subject to further feasibility, risk
assessment and cost-benefit studies. Participants then ranked the relative
importance (low, medium, high) of each impact in terms of the potential
significance on the organisation.
Thirty percent of the impacts were considered high importance, with the
balance equally distributed between low and medium importance. The
largest number of high importance impacts was identified in the
infrastructure category, followed by environment and water quantity. The
relative rankings within each of the nine theme areas are shown in Figure 2.
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Figure 2. Climate change impacts grouped into major themes and ranked by relative importance.
The nine groups of controls or actions were subsequently sorted according to
the key focus areas in the SCA Corporate Sustainability Strategy, to ensure the
actions are embedded in the SCA’s planning framework.
Overall, the SCA has a high degree of preparedness for handling many of the
potential impacts of climate change. In part this is due to the fact that water
resource managers in Australia (including the SCA) have historically had to
deal with a high degree of climatic and hydrologic variability. Therefore a
range of controls (operations, policies or procedures) and inbuilt flexibility is
already in place, which can be accelerated if needed. However, the SCA has
identified a number of business areas where improved planning, additional
investment and back-up systems could assist in building adaptive capacity
and business resilience.
The following sections summarise the identified business vulnerabilities,
existing controls and possible responses according to the key focus areas of
the SCA’s Corporate Sustainability Strategy.
5.1 Tools and systems
Key vulnerabilities
• Increase in flow variability across storages.
• Lower inflows into Warragamba Dam and Tallowa Dam in Shoalhaven.
• More inflows into Metropolitan storages (Avon, Cataract, Cordeaux,
Nepean and Woronora dams).
• Changes in the origins, amount, and timing of pollutant loads.
The SCA relies heavily on predictive models and analytical tools to inform
catchment and reservoir management decisions and early warning systems.
A changing climate will challenge the validity of many of these tools. This is
because climate change may drive events which are beyond our historical
experience (and therefore outside of the calibration range of our existing
models), and because climate change is likely to fundamentally alter
previously assumed land and water relationships. The SCA is building improved models of catchment stream flow and
transport of pollutants during wet weather events. It is also undertaking a
review of both its existing portfolio of models as well as the new generation
of models available for simulating catchment runoff, pollutant instream flows,
instream fate and transport of pollutants as well as groundwater-surface
water interactions under climate change scenarios. The SCA’s current water
monitoring review is considering improvements to the monitoring network
to ensure it can support future modelling needs.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
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Climate Change Action 3 – Quantifying the
impact of climate change on water
quantity and quality
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Reliable water
The SCA will complete its review of models including an
assessment of their performance under climate change
scenarios. Existing modelling tools will be reviewed for sensitivity
to assumptions on climatic parameters and revised as necessary,
and sensitivity runs of the models will be undertaken under a
variety of climate change scenarios together with more rigorous
calibration to improve model predictions under both drought
and extreme wet weather events. Models will need to be able to
efficiently handle statistical probability data sets as well as
historic data sets and where possible, catchment and reservoir
modelling will need to be more closely coupled. SCA’s monitoring program will be more closely aligned with the
input and output of its modelling tools, so that models can be
re-calibrated as rainfall patterns and inflows change, affecting
both water quality and yield. Monitoring of extreme events
(both very low and very high flows) will be reviewed and
integrated with improved modelling capabilities to improve
model calibrations at the extremes and to better inform the
assessment of climate impacts. There will be increased emphasis
on event-based sampling possibly offset by reduced effort in
routine sampling.
5.2 Water quantity
Key vulnerabilities
•
•
•
•
Decreased system yield affecting both reliability and security.
Increase in flow variability across storages.
Lower inflows into Warragamba Dam and Tallowa Dam in Shoalhaven.
More inflows into Metropolitan storages (Avon, Cataract, Cordeaux,
Nepean and Woronora dams).
Total catchment yield is likely to decrease due to higher evapo-transpiration
and increased soil moisture deficit, as well as increased local interception of
runoff by landowners expanding their use of farm dams and groundwater
bores. Evaporation will be an increasingly important consideration. Changes
in rainfall distribution could lower inflows into Warragamba and place
increasing dependence on the Metropolitan storages.
Higher temperatures and extended droughts increase the risk of major water
quality incidents in the storages (eg cyanobacterial bloom in Wingecarribee
reservoir) and will require more flexibility around alternate supplies and
transfer options if individual storages are taken off-line for extended periods.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
16
The SCA has a range of tools to assist the assessment and planning of water
supply options under a wide range of scenarios. Wathnet system modelling
enables the efficient assessment of alternate future scenarios, depletion
projections and yield risk studies. Deep water pumping stations and
groundwater readiness have been extended as part of the MWP. A case for
expansion of the capacity through replacement of the Upper Canal is being
developed and other transfer options are being considered as part of
strategic supply planning.
Climate Change Action 4 – Increasing
flexibility in the water supply system
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Reliable water
Further opportunities for increasing supply flexibility across the
system will be investigated including enhanced transfer
capabilities, and/or greater local storage (surface water,
groundwater and potentially abandoned mines) in the
Metropolitan and Shoalhaven systems to maintain reliability of
supply. 5.3 Water quality
Key vulnerabilities
• Higher frequency and/or intensity of extreme wet weather events
increases the potential for large scale mobilisation and transport of
pollutants to water supply offtakes.
• More frequent or larger cyanobacterial blooms in storages.
• Different cyanobacterial assemblage with potentially higher toxicity or
taste and odour compounds.
• Reduced resilience of aquatic ecosystems.
• Potential destabilisation of lake ecosystems leading to tipping point in
biological integrity and emergence of new dominant ‘pest’ species.
• Bushfires and storms compromise water monitoring stations.
Most climate change projections are indicating increased storm activity and
high intensity rainfall in summer between extended dry periods. This is likely
to result in more rapid and more extreme changes in water quality, and more
complex behaviour shifts in reservoir hydrodynamics. Large, intense
bushfires could result in large quantities of ash, phosphorous, nitrogen and
organic matter being washed into storages if heavy rain fell within several
weeks to a year after the fire. An increase in extreme wet weather events may result in an increased risk of
major pollution incidents. The frequency or scale of cyanobacterial blooms in
storages may also increase as a result of the combination of lower water
levels and increased nutrient loading during extreme rainfall events and/or
the mobilisation of nutrients from lake bed sediments. Changes in
hydrodynamic or chemical conditions may also favour the emergence of new
dominant cyanobacterial species with greater toxicity or taste and odour
than previous blooms and would cause major problems with management
and treatment.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
17
Monitoring of extreme events (both very low and very high flows) has always
been challenging. Existing SCA monitoring programs (water quality,
hydrometric and meteorological) are not optimised for measuring shorter
duration and sporadic rainfall events. Higher temperature and more severe
storms would likely lead to an increase in the number and complexity of
declared incidents. Concurrent incidents or cascading failures of key
infrastructure would challenge the SCA’s operating procedures and
organisational resilience.
Climate changes are also likely to have a broad impact on catchment
condition and stream health, and on regional development patterns and
associated land use changes, and on the management practices adopted
within existing land use categories. These will all ultimately impact on the
relative contributions of pollutants across the different sources. They may also
confound the evaluation of the impact of land uses and the interventions
implemented through the Healthy Catchments Strategy. It will be more
difficult to assess the impact of catchment interventions when water quality
observations are confounded by changes in climate, and more sophisticated
modelling and evaluation techniques will be required.
The water supply system already provides management options to handle
water quality challenges such as offtake selection, system transfers, alternate
sources, on-line access to hydrodynamic and water quality data and limited
event modelling capability. The SCA’s incident response and scenario-based
contingency plans are reasonably comprehensive. Research and
investigations into the cause and behaviour of water quality events continues
to aid management preparedness and the identification of suitable
responses. Research into the causes and effects of water quality incidents
associated with extreme wet weather is being given priority at the SCA and
nationally, through Water Quality Research Australia (WQRA). The SCA is also a
partner in an Australian Research Council linkage project at the University of
New South Wales which is investigating the impact of climate change in
SCA’s Special Areas.
Climate Change Action 5 – Improving
capacity to monitor short-duration events
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Reliable water
Monitoring of extreme events (both very low and very high
flows) will become a major focus of future monitoring and
research, particularly as this data is needed to help improve
modelling capabilities and calibrations. 5.4 Environment
Key vulnerabilities
• Loss of wetlands, possibly permanent.
• Potential destabilisation of peat swamp and mass in Wingecarribee
Reservoir.
• Deterioration of riparian corridors.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
18
• Reduced resilience of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems leads to
irreversible changes to biological integrity and emergence of new
dominant ‘pest’ species such as cyanobacteria, weed species and pest
animals.
• Less water for environmental flows.
• Extended bushfire season with more intense fires.
• Vegetation community could shift towards more drought-tolerant or fireresistant species.
The natural environment provides a wide range of ecosystem services to
protect water quality and base flow into streams. Changes in climate are likely
to have a broad impact on both terrestrial and aquatic ecology, affecting
catchment and stream health, biodiversity and environmental condition.
There may also be secondary flow-on environmental implications from
changes to SCA operations such as water transfer and environmental flows. The Healthy Catchments Strategy, including plans of management of Special
Areas, State Environmental Planning Policy (Sydney Drinking Water
Catchment) 2011 (SEPP), bushfire management, risk and operational plans are
in place and are generally flexible enough to handle changes in catchment
conditions.
It will be increasingly difficult to differentiate between outcomes from active
catchment intervention by the SCA and environmental and water quality
changes caused by climate change. Increasingly, more sophisticated
modelling and evidence-based evaluation tools will be required.
The SCA should work closely with other agencies such as DECCW and
research providers to improve assessment of ecological condition and
environmental stressors. The ongoing development of knowledge relating to
the impact of fire on water quality will need to be reflected in revisions to fire
management policies.
5.5 Land use
Key vulnerabilities
• Changes in land use (eg crop and grazing type and intensity) and
retirement of marginal land, displaced communities.
• Increase in local water extraction (groundwater and surface water).
• Inadequate stormwater design in townships and sewage treatment plants
(point source pollutants).
• Increase of diffuse source pollutants.
• Increased understanding of the role of bio-sequestration (both in
improving soil carbon content and revegetation) in carbon markets will
open opportunities for landowners and the SCA in alternative land uses.
The demographics and makeup of local communities are likely to change as
existing agriculture becomes less viable and hobby farms and retirement
acreage increase, particularly along the Sydney-Goulburn growth corridor.
This demand on local water supplies, combined with a possible increase in
the number and size of farm dams and local retention structures to offset
reduced rainfall in inland areas, will decrease the runoff into streams and SCA
reservoirs.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
19
Modules within the Healthy Catchments Strategy should incorporate new
climate scenarios and projections as they become available. These include
the Neutral or Beneficial Effect (NorBE) toolkit, the Strategic Land and Water
Capability Assessment (SLWCA), and the Catchment Decision Support System
(CDSS), as well as rural land use guidelines and recommended best
management practices, Sewage Treatment Plan (STP) design, and CMA
incentives. It would be beneficial to upgrade SCA monitoring programs
(water quality, hydrometric and meteorological) so that they can measure
shorter duration and sporadic rainfall events, and models improved to better
understand the impact of changing land use and climate.
The SCA should be proactive in identifying and encouraging new practices
that improve water quality, but not at the expense of runoff and yield. The
SCA could potentially expand its Current Recommended Practice (CRP)
program.
Climate Change Action 6 – Reviewing
strategies and plans for sensitivity to
climate change scenarios
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Reliable water
Climate change will be explicitly considered in future revisions of
the Healthy Catchments Strategy. Decision support tools such
as the CDSS, the NorBE toolkit, and the plans of management for
the Special Areas will all need to recognize and be adaptable to
the progressive changes in climate, catchment response and
land use patterns.
5.6 Infrastructure
Key vulnerabilities
• More intense storms, high winds and lightning, higher temperatures and
increased bushfire weather. Critical system failure for dams, pumping
stations, control structures and other facilities (eg on-site power supplies,
control systems, communications, actuators, pumps, water monitoring
stations and radio telemetry assets).
• Flood, water or hail damage to SCA infrastructure (including telemetry and
communications systems).
• Water supply infrastructure not suited to changed inflow patterns.
• Flood design based on Australian Rainfall and Runoff (ARR) and Probable
Maximum Flood (PMF) estimates inadequate.
• Debris in gates and offtakes, weir failure.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
20
A change in rainfall patterns and more severe storm events could impact a
wide range of SCA infrastructure, including critical control systems at dams,
pumping stations, control structures, monitoring and telecommunications
systems. More frequent and/or higher intensity bushfires can also threaten
infrastructure. Regulatory requirements for dams and weirs are likely to be
reviewed and revised under climate change with potential infrastructure
implications. The SCA’s water transfer system could be challenged by two potential
impacts of climate change:
• A change in rainfall patterns (eg higher rainfall in metropolitan
catchments) could create increased reliance on the Upper Canal or its
replacement for SCA supply to greater Sydney and/or increased transfer
volumes between Metropolitan dams.
• Increased competition from desalination and increased supply from the
Metropolitan Dams could affect SCA water transfer operations to Prospect
using the Warragamba Pipeline which is currently constrained by
minimum flow requirements. An anticipated increase in climatic extremes will put stress on
telecommunication infrastructure that supports data collection systems.
More intense bushfires could result in failure of critical systems at dams,
pumping stations and control structures.
A change in rainfall patterns and more severe storm events could impact a
wide range of SCA infrastructure, including critical systems at dams, pumping
stations, control structures and telecommunication systems. More frequent
bushfire weather and high-intensity bushfires would have flow-on effects to
water quality, yield and damage to infrastructure. The design specifications of
critical infrastructure should be reviewed and the vulnerability of
telecommunication links and critical monitoring sites assessed. Regulatory
requirements for dams and weirs could be altered under climate change.
Further modeling of probable maximum floods under revised climate models
would assist in planning upgrades or changes to operating regimes such as
pre-release in advance of flood.
Design specifications are subject to regular review, and many critical system
components incorporate redundancy and are considered in contingency
planning. Improved emphasis on resilience to extreme events would be
beneficial. Dams and weirs meet current regulatory requirements based on
historical estimates of peak flood and rainfall intensity. Contingency response
plans, condition monitoring and early warning systems are in place. There is
some duplication of communications systems and backup generators.
Climate Change Action 7 – Reviewing
design specifications of existing critical
infrastructure
Corporate Sustainability key focus Area: Reliable water
A forward program for the review of design specifications of
existing infrastructure, plant and equipment will be developed
to assess vulnerability to extreme events such as storms, fires
and floods. Scenario testing of critical infrastructure, vulnerability
assessment and increasing redundancy at critical sites will also
be undertaken where appropriate. Detailed modelling of
demand/supply options and further modelling of probable
maximum floods will be considered to assist in planning
upgrades or changes to operating regimes such as pre-release in
advance of a flood. SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
21
5.7 Supply chain
Key vulnerabilities
• Inability to supply sufficient water to customers as per agreements.
• Inability to meet water quality parameters in water supply agreements –
impact on filtration plants, public health, customer confidence and
complaints.
• Changes in customer demand due to changes in population distribution
and consumption (see also Water Quantity).
• Increased electricity costs impact upstream and downstream businesses.
• Decreased reliability of electricity supply (more blackouts) impact ability to
transfer water.
Changes in climatic conditions and government pressure to reduce carbon
emissions are likely to have upstream and downstream impacts on the SCA,
in terms of suppliers of goods and services to the SCA as well as the delivery
of water to its customers. Some of these changes will create new or modified
risks to the SCA while others will present opportunities. To respond to these challenges and opportunities, the SCA will need to
further utilise or expand its existing range of operating protocols and formal
and informal processes for regular communication with customers, suppliers
and other stakeholders, liaison through government networks, flexible water
transfer and configuration, MWP forecasting, and incident management.
The ability of the SCA to supply water through gravity feed and the use of
back-up generators for control systems insulates the SCA from electricity
disruptions to some degree, but there is a need to expand the use of standalone electricity generation and re-engineer some key systems for manual/
analogue control.
Increased frequency and severity of storms and extreme events could
potentially disrupt service delivery of critical items such as diesel fuel, power
supplies and subsequently other services. There is a need to improve
understanding of supply chain vulnerabilities.
An increased emphasis on the formal assessment of vulnerability of goods
and service providers to energy disruptions and other outages/unavailability
of critical requirements would be beneficial in response to climate change as
well as other external forces outside of the SCA’s direct control such as
population growth and distribution.
5.8 Business
Key vulnerabilities
• Difficulty in matching supply to demand.
• Loss of sales quantity with resultant changes to revenue, expenditure,
dividends and finance costs.
• Decreased public confidence in SCA to deliver reliable quality water.
• Increase in disruption and number of declared incidents (eg floods,
declared droughts, algal blooms); concurrent incidents.
• Decision support tools are not able to predict climate change impacts on
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
22
future plans and options.
• Communication systems, SCADA compromised (see also Infrastructure).
• Business investments are sub-optimal under a changed climate.
Climate change has a range of implications on revenue from water sales,
capital expenditure and pumping costs, as well as on competition from
alternative water sources such as desalination. Impacts on supply and water
quality will increase the need to justify expenditure and put pressure on
revenues, with flow-on effects to SCA’s negotiations with regulators and
ratings agencies.
Variability in system yield could be offset by alternative financial instruments
and forward sales contracts to manage price risk.
Financial impacts could be mitigated by more sophisticated economic
modelling, alternative finance options such as insurance for unanticipated
pumping costs and alternate business models to enable greater
diversification and flexibility in supply. There is a need to improve incident
management capability, business continuity plans, workforce adaptive
capacity and multi-skilling of staff for workplace flexibility. The SCA might also
consider expanding its role in the delivery of alternate (out of catchment)
water supply schemes. Climate change impacts on water supply and water quality will increase the
need to justify project design and expenditure. Business cases for new project
proposals currently include sustainability criteria, but not climatic
assumptions or sensitivities.
Climate Change Action 8 – Building
explicit consideration of climate change
into new business initiatives and project
designs
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Business viability
Enhanced workforce flexibility and organisational resilience will
be developed. Incident response plans will be expanded to
address a broader range of scenarios and the disruptive risks
through improved continuity and disaster recovery planning.
Attention to incident management, business continuity
management and disaster recovery planning will be increased.
Other response options will be explored including forward sales
contracts and alternative financial instruments to manage price
and supply risk, improving workforce adaptive capacity and
responsiveness through up-skilling and cultural change.
In the future all SCA business cases, which are already required
to include sustainability criteria, will be required to address
climate related risks and demonstrate their potential to improve
business resilience. Business cases will also explore alternative
funding options and economic models.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
23
A change in climate would have fundamental implications for SCA business,
affecting sales, competition, customer satisfaction and community
confidence. Climate change is becoming increasingly reflected in
government policy with resultant impacts on carbon pricing, renewable
energy targets and electricity and fuel costs. Improved modelling of the
impact of climate scenarios and close collaboration with external agencies
and ongoing review of adaptation plans is essential.
Higher temperature and more severe storms would likely lead to an increase
in the number and complexity of declared incidents. Concurrent incidents or
cascading failures of key infrastructure would challenge operating procedures
and organisational resilience. Increased attention to climate change in supply planning, system modelling,
Independant Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal (IPART) negotiations, Corporate
Sustainability Strategy, business continuity management and disaster
recovery plans is warranted.
Climate Change Action 9 – Increasing
preparedness to manage concurrent
incidents
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Business viability
While the SCA’s incident response and scenario based
contingency planning are reasonably comprehensive, increased
attention will be paid to incident management, business
continuity and disaster recovery planning. This will also consider
the potential for improved workforce adaptive capacity and
responsiveness through up skilling and cultural exchange.
Key vulnerabilities
• Unable to meet customer demand due to reduced inflows to storages.
• Change in function and ownership of the SCA.
• DECCW – changes to the Special Areas Strategic Plan of Management
(SASPoM), bushfire management, licensed polluter compliance, climate
science program, open or closed catchments.
• Regulators (IPART and others) – increased pressure to quantify impacts
and justify expenditure on climate impacts.
• Department of Health - revisions to Australian Drinking Water Guidelines;
Water Quality Characteristics.
Changes in security of supply, water source management and water quality
resulting from climate change could impact on public confidence in the
SCA’s ability to deliver reliable quality water. An inability to meet water
quality parameters could impact on public confidence in the SCA’s ability to
deliver reliable quality water. Longer drought periods, elevated temperatures
and sporadic periods of heavy rain could result in breaches of supply
agreements with customers, requiring re-negotiation and amendments to
relevant legislation and supply agreements. Longer term, climate change
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
24
impacts on water quality could be less of a problem than quantity, because a
wider range of control measures (source and offtake selection) and the
ability of customers to upgrade treatment plants. Impacts on supply and
water quality will increase the need to justify expenditure and put pressure
on revenues, which in turn will flow through to SCA’s negotiations with
regulators and ratings agencies.
SCA has strong relationships with stakeholders and regulators, at both policy
and operational levels. The Water for Life program, coordinated between
Sydney Water, the SCA, the NSW Office of Water and DECCW, provides
effective public outreach, but could be more proactive in educating the
public on alternative water sources that may be considered in the future. The
SCA works closely with Industry & Investment NSW with its rural and grazing
outreach programs.
The legislative and regulatory frameworks that define expectations of the
SCA are based on historically achievable values of water quantity and quality
supplied from Sydney’s drinking water catchments and reservoirs. Climate
change will increasingly influence relationships with external agencies, in
particular DECCW through its CCAP, public lands management and science
programs. NSW Health will continue to play a key role in revisions to the
Australian Drinking Water Guidelines and emerging health risks.
Climate Change Action 10 – Improving
communication and knowledge exchange
on climate change
Corporate Sustainability key focus area: Industry Excellence
New or expanded outreach programs will be developed to
manage community expectations of water quality and supply
issues. At the same time adaptations to climate change will be
included in catchment development controls and best
management practices. Those responsible for their
implementation, such as local councils and landholders, will be
kept informed and assisted to adjust their activities and
decisions in response to climate change impacts. To avoid the impact of climate change on catchment communities and
landowners putting additional pressure on the SCA’s role in planning,
incentives and compliance, tools such as CDSS, NorBE, SLWCA, stormwater
and onsite waste system models will be regularly upgraded to reflect
changing or more variable climate. Education and outreach programs and
close liaison with local government and the Department of Planning will
drive the required changes.
Pre-treatment at high-risk sites and re-negotiation of the acceptable range of
water quality parameters with water filtration plant operators will be
explored as possible response options. Opportunities for public education
and outreach on relative health risks of different water sources, the
management of community expectations and improved public
preparedness for possible water quality incidents will be explored. SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
25
6 Conclusion
The climate change impact assessment conducted by the SCA in 2010 found
that overall, the SCA has a high degree of preparedness for addressing many
of the potential impacts of climate change.
The climate futures used in this assessment were based on recent climate
projections covering SCA catchment areas, and involved two future climate
scenarios with higher temperatures and more variable rainfall. The
assessment emphasised the complexity of the interrelations between water
quantity, water quality and catchment condition, and highlighted the
potential impacts of climate change on SCA operations, infrastructure,
business and regulation.
The assessment identified and prioritised potential climate change impacts
on the SCA, identified current activities or controls that partially mitigate the
impacts, and developed a range of responses that could be considered in the
future. These responses include identifying a number of business areas where
improved planning, additional investment and back-up systems could assist
in building the SCA’s adaptive capacity and business resilience.
The findings of this climate change impact assessment have been built into
the SCA’s business planning as part of the Corporate Sustainability Strategy
that provides the SCA’s strategic direction for the next five years.
Projections of future climate have large uncertainties because current models
are unable to capture the complexity of feedback mechanisms in the earthatmosphere-hydrosphere system. Although the science of climate modelling
is rapidly improving, models and projections at best present a range of
possible futures to consider in scenario and business planning. Such known
uncertainty requires the SCA to be adaptable to rapid change and apply
ongoing sustainable and flexible business practices to ensure resilience to
changes in climate and other external forces.
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
26
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SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
27
Acronyms
SCA Climate Change Impact
Assessment 2010
28
ARR
Australian Rainfall and Runoff
CCAP Climate Change Action Plan
CMA
Catchment Management Authority
CRP
Current Recommended Practices
CDSS
SCA’s Catchment Decision Support System
CSIRO
Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
DECCW Department of Environment, Climate Change and Water
ENSO El Niño Southern Oscillation
IPART
Independent Pricing and Regulatory Tribunal
IPCC
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MWP
Metropolitan Water Plan
NorBE
Neutral or beneficial effect on water
PMF
Probable Maximum Flood
SAM Southern Annual Mode
SASPoM
Special Areas Strategic Plan of Management
SCA
Sydney Catchment Authority
SCARMS
SCA’s Reservoir Management System
SEPP
State Environmental Planning Policy (Sydney Drinking Water Catchment) 2011
SLWCA
Strategic Land and Water Capability Assessment
STP
Sewage treatment plant
WQRA Water Quality Research Australia
Contact information
Sydney Catchment Authority
Penrith Office
Sydney Catchment Authority
Level 4, 2-6 Station Street
Penrith NSW 2750
Telephone + 61 2 4724 2200
1300 SCA GOV (1300 722 468)
Fax
+ 61 2 4725 2599
Office hours 8.30am to 5pm Monday to Friday
Website
www.sca.nsw.gov.au
Email
[email protected]
© Sydney Catchment Authority
© State of New South Wales through the Sydney Catchment Authority, 2010.
This work may be freely reproduced and distributed for most purposes,
however some restrictions apply. See the copyright notice on www.sca.nsw.
gov.au or contact the SCA on 1300 722 468.
ISBN 978-1-876951-52-8