Download Foods, Festivals, and Holidays in Ancient Rome

Ancient
Rome
Group 3
March 9, 2007
Government
Domestic Politics
Government Background
• Roman Republic founded after the end of the
Etruscan Kingship in 509 B.C.
• Based on the Ancient Greek model of government
• Republic 509 B.C.-27 B.C.; Empire 31 B.C.-293
A.D.
The Roman Empire
reached its greatest extent
in the year 116 under the
rule of the emperor Trajan.
The Republic
• Roman laws traditionally could only be passed
by a vote of the popular assembly
• Candidates for public positions had to run for
election by the people
• The Senate held great authority, but no actual
legislative power; it was technically only an
advisory council
• Senators were chosen from among the most
accomplished patricians by Censors who could
also remove a Senator from his office if he was
found "morally corrupt"
The Republic
• To prevent any one person from gaining too much power,
new magistrates were elected annually and had to share
power with another
• Normally the highest authority was held by two consuls,
but in emergencies a temporary dictator might be
appointed
• The structure of the administration was changed
multiple times due to internal changes
The Empire
• In the early years of the empire, the government
remained a “republic”
• Augustus was the first true emperor, ruling after he
dismantled the final triumvirate
• The first five emperors of the New Rome were considered
the Julio-Claudian Emperors as they were “descendants”
of Julius Caesar; they ruled 27 B.C.-68 A.D.
Augustus
Tiberius
Caligula
Claudius
Nero
27 B.C.-14 A.D.
14 A.D.-37 A.D.
37 A.D.-41 A.D.
41 A.D.-54 A.D.
54 A.D.-68 A.D.
The Empire
• Over time the emperor became more and more
autocratic and the Senate truly lost power
• Territory was divided into multiple provinces
• Towns were divided into colonies composed of former
soldiers or members of the Roman underclass
• After the Julio-Claudian line of emperors, many other
lines followed before the East-West split
• Pax Romana 27 B.C.-180 A.D. was a period of relative
peace for the Roman Empire
• The Crisis of the Third Century occurred 235-284 and
almost caused the complete collapse of the empire
• Diocletian gained complete power in 285 and divided
the empire into East and West
Government
Foreign Politics
Roman Empire in 250 B.C
After wars with allies, the Etruscans, the Samnites and the
Greeks, Rome is victorious and has city-states that pay
tribute to Rome where citizenship is either offered or can be
earned.
Roman Empire in 241-227 B.C.
After the first Punic War, the Romans take control of Sicily
and later take possession of Sardinia and Corsica.
Praetors are created to be the official governing body in each
of Rome’s new provinces (Sicily, Sardinia/Corsica).
Roman Empire in 197 B.C.
After the Second Punic War, Rome takes Southern Spain from the
Carthaginians, dividing it into Hispana Citerior and Hispana
Ulterior, each with its own praetor.
Roman Empire in 167 B.C.
In the Third Macedonian War, Rome defeats King Gentium
and takes an unofficial hold of the Ilyrian coastline.
Roman Empire in 146 B.C.
Corinth and Carthage are defeated and destroyed.
Macedonia-Achaia and Africa are added as provinces of Rome.
Roman Empire in 133 B.C.
The Lusitanii are defeated in Northern and Eastern Spain.
King Attalus Pergamum in Asia Minor leaves his wealthy
kingdom in his will to the possession of Rome.
Roman Empire in 121-102 B.C.
Celtic tribes, along with the Teutones and the Cimbri along the
Rhone are defeated, allowing the addition of the Gallia Narbonensis
province.
The Baelaric Islands are taken and Roman Victory over pirates in
part of Cilicia in Southern Asia Minor also adds new territory.
Roman Empire in 74-60 B.C.
After Sulla’s defeat of the King of Pontus, the province
Bithynia et Pontus in present-day Northern Turkey is added.
Pompey later expands this territory and creates a new
province, Syria, though no new praetors are added.
Roman Empire in 44 B.C.
Caesar conquers the majority of Gaul.
Pompey takes control of Northern Spain.
Family and Gender Relations
Marriage
• More of a financial and
political alliance than
romantic association in
hopes of improving
family’s wealth or class
• Arranged marriages
– Fathers usually began
seeking husbands for
their daughters when
they reached ages 12-14
– Husband typically older
than bride
• Monogamous
• Women presented
dowry
• Divorce very common
Households
• Basic unit of society
• Included paterfamilias, his wife
“materfamilias”, children, and slaves (if
family owned any)
• Every home had household god, usually
with shrine
Men
• Dominated family life
• “Paterfamilias” (father of the family),
the oldest living male, was head of
family
– Only one to own property
– Tended to family's business affairs and
property and could perform religious
rites on their behalf
– Absolute rule (“patria potestas”) over
household and children
• Paterfamilias had all power
– Power to decide whether or not to keep
newborn baby
– Legal rights over children
Women
•
•
•
•
•
Defined by the men in their lives
Regarded mainly as mothers and wives
Not equal under law
Received only basic education
Subject to the authority of man at any time
– Before marriage: father
– After: authority of husband
• Could not vote or stand for office
• Degree of freedom depended on wealth and
social status
Children
• High infant mortality rate
• As a result, Roman state gave legal
rewards to women who successfully gave
birth
• After 3 live babies, women recognized as
legally independent
• Sons were important- placed lots of
value on continuing the family name
Foods, Festivals, and
Holidays in Ancient Rome
Roman Cuisine
• Changed throughout
their ancient
civilization
• Influenced by Greek
culture, political
changes, and the
expansion
• 3 meals:
•Lentaculum, or breakfast,
in the morning
•Small lunch at noon
•Main meal of the day, the
cena, in the evening
Roman Festivals and Holidays
• Purpose was to celebrate
and worship a certain
god or mythical
occurrence through
various religious
practices, festival
traditions, and feasts.
• Four most important:
–
–
–
–
the Saturnalia
the Consualia
the Lupercalia
The Rites of the Bona Dea
Saturnalia:
– December 17th
– Feast in honor of
Saturn, the god of
agriculture and
harvest
– Public festival in
which sacrifices
were made
– School holiday,
making and giving
of small presents,
and a special
market
– Slaves celebrated
and were free from
duties &
punishment
Rites of Bona Dea:
– December 4th
– Goddess of fertility,
healing, virginity, and
women
– Held in the home of a
prominent Roman
magistrate
– Only included women
– Conducted annually by
senior magistrate’s wife
– Little is known about
the ceremony; worship
may be agricultural in
origin
The Consualia
– August 21
– In honor of Consus, the god of counsel and protector
of the harvest
– Harvest grains, which were in storage in
underground vaults all year long, were uncovered
for this day only
– Chariot races
– Romulus allowed men to forcibly take Sabine
women as wives in order to increase the population
of Rome
– Women treated fairly even though taken against
their will & eventually became submissive wives
Lupercalia
February 15th
• Ancient pastoral festival
meant to avert evil spirits
and purify the city to release
health and fertility
• Sacrificed two male goats and
a dog
• Two young male patricians
anointed with the blood.
• Sacrificial feast
• Patricians cut thongs from
the skins of the sacrifices,
dressed themselves in the
goat’s skin, and ran around
the walls of the city striking
people
• Women and girls would line
up to be whipped
– Believed to prevent
sterility, ensure fertility,
and ease childbirth.
Recreation
•
Gladiators
Professional fighters who fought other gladiators, slaves, and/or wild
animals.
• Comes from Latin word “gladius” - a short sword used by legionnaires.
• The gladiatorial games were actually adopted from the Etruscan culture
for entertainment
• Initially set up by rich individuals for public popularity
• Emperors eventually controlled all recreation, including gladiator games
• Usually did not fight more than
three times per year
• Fought one versus one or in groups
based on request
• Usually did not fight to the death,
but were accidentally killed or
maimed
Gladiators
• Were usually slaves, but were also criminals and were expected to die
within a year or earn their freedom three years if they survived
– Given a wooden sword as a memento of surviving
• Crowd decided on fate of the gladiators not emperors
• Gladiators seen in an ambivalent light
– Lower than slaves (owned by the rich)
– Pop icons/sex symbols
• Some taught the legionnaires in single combat
• Some joined the games as a last resort to poverty
• Emperors participated in the rigged gladiatorial games
• One of the most famous gladiators: Spartacus, who led a revolt in 73 BC.
• Gladiatorial games outlawed in 325, and the last known gladiatorial
game – Rome, January 1st, 404
Roman Theatre
• The Roman theater
– semicircular in shape
– orchestra pit in front of it
• These theaters were built outside, due to lighting and sound
issues
• Had a high back wall, so the audience could not see over
– Nooks and tunnels were carved into wall for usage
• Sound problem was solved by extravagant visuals:
– Brown masks = men, white masks = women
– A purple gown = affluence, striped toga = boy, short cloak =
soldier, red toga = poor man, and a short tunic = slave, etc.
– Audience paid more attention to actor than acting, so actors
used costumes to win over audience
• Women were not allowed to perform, men or boys took their roles
• An actor spoke lines, a second actor mimed the lines to some
background music
• Some gestures were known to represent certain things
Roman Theatre
• The Romans were bloodthirsty
– For plays they actually killed a person instead of acting it out
• Most play did not have stage direction
– Most translations with directions are inferred
• Emperors participated in theater
• Original reason for theater unknown
– Performances linked with special celebrations
– Later become more common
Other Recreations
• Roman games (Track and Field) were played on Campus, an old drill
grounds for soldiers
• Activities on the Campus are: Archery, Foot racing, Jumping, Wrestling,
Boxing, Riding, Fencing, Throwing, And Swimming. Among others
• After exercise, the men would jump into the Tiber River which was next
to the Campus
• Men also hunted, fished, played ball games of throwing and catching
• Many types of ball games invented by the Romans: Handball (Expulsim
Ludere), early form of Soccer, Field Hockey, and even Dodge Ball. Some
pictures show a ball that resembles modern day soccer ball
• Women were not allowed to participate in these games or activities
• Romans also played board games:
– Knucklebones (Tali & Tropa)
– Dice (Tesserae)
– Roman Chess (Latrunculi)
– Roman Checkers (Calculi)
– Tic-Tac-Toe (Terni Lapilli)
– Roman Backgammon (Tabula)
Ancient Roman Religion
Roman Mythology
Pagan Religion
• Roman religion polytheistic
with many gods
• Main job of people was to
please gods
• Early Roman religion rooted
in everything having a spirit
– Pleased spirits by worship
and sacrifice
• Adopted many gods from the
Greeks but changed their
names
– Roman gods more formal
and less personal than
Greek gods
• gods extremely
important to daily life
of Romans
• gods were the center of
Roman religion
• They control every
aspect of the Romans’
lives
The gods
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Jupiter—king of Gods
Juno—goddess of sky, women,
childbirth
Mars—god of war
Mercury—the messenger god
Neptune—god of the sea
Janus—god of the doorway
Diana—goddess of hunting
• Ceres—goddess of agriculture
• Vesta—goddess of the hearth
• Minvera—goddess of healing,
wisdom
• Saturn—god of wine
• Pluto—god of the underworld,
wealth
• Venus—goddess of love
Temples
• Each god had a temple and all
Roman temples followed the same
pattern…
– Triangle roof supported by pillars
– Main doorway was reached by steps
– Each god had a temple and a statue of the god
in it
– Alters were in the temples for the priests to
sacrifice animals to the gods
– Augurs were people who predicted the future
through the dead animals
Festivals of the Gods
• A specific day was set aside for each god as a
celebration day
• Romans visited the temple of whichever god
was being celebrated that day
• Priests offered sacrificed animals to the god
that was being celebrated on that specific day
• Certain priests were
responsible for “taking
care” of each specific
god and worshipping
him or her
Sacrifices
• Most sacrifices were
animals but on occasion,
the Romans sacrificed
people
• Slaves and prisoners of
war were buried alive by
the Romans
• During the Republic of
Rome, sacrifice of humans
was less common
Vestal Virgins
•
•
•
•
Guarded temple of Vesta
Priestesses of the temple
Made sacrifices to Vesta
Had to keep the alter fire in
the temple burning constantly
because Vesta was goddess of
the hearth
• Had to remain virgins and
if they did not keep their
vow, they were buried alive
Home Life and Religion
• Each home had a
shrine and alter for the
gods
• Lares = household gods
and spirits
– Worshipped everyday
– Statues of these gods in
each home
– Prayed to daily by head
of house
– Even family slaves were
included in worship
– More important to please
lares than the public
gods like Jupiter
Religious Tolerance
• Under most the
emperors of the
Roman Empire,
religious tolerance
was widely accepted
as long as the
religions did not
interfere with Roman
religion
• However, Diocletian
launched the worst
persecution of
Christians during his
reign
• Constantine brought about
the end of paganism
• Ended the persecution of
Christians with the Edict of
Milan (313) – gave religious
freedom
• Council of Nicaea (325) –
established Christianity as
the main religion
Roman Art and Architecture
Propaganda
• Idea of pleasing the people was important
• Commemorating victorious battles, showing
the Roman value of “might is right”
The Colosseum
• Largest amphitheater built in Rome
•Supervised by various emperors, with each
making adjustments and modifications
Colosseum,
Rome
• Could flood the building to hold naval
battling games
Column of Trajan
• Built by Senate in honor of Trajan’s victory
in the Dacian Wars (101-102, 105-106 AD)
• Towers over Trajan’s Forum, making sure all
can see the structure
• Figures grow larger as the tower winds
further up towards the top
Column of Trajan,
Rome
Propaganda
• Emperors often appear as though giving a
speech
• Frequently associated with nobility or the gods
• Appear commanding and dominant over the
viewer, often raised on pedestal to give this affect
Augustus of Primaporta
• Breastplate speaks to the military
Augustus of
Primaporta
• Wears Senatorial robes, raising hand to
acknowledge people
• Divine association with Venus (Cupid, dolphin)
Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius
• Wears Senatorial robes, raising hand to
acknowledge people
• Nobility is represented by portrayal on a horse
Equestrian Statue of Marcus
Aurelius, Rome
Average Citizens in Art
• Usually art was made for royalty, but those who
could afford it had works commissioned for
themselves
• Since these were not famous people, their
names were lost over time
Roman Patrician with Busts of his Ancestors
• Man’s features have not been airbrushed: he is
not made to look younger as many emperors were
• Most likely kept in the home to remind the
family of their ancestors and noble standing
(wears Senatorial robes)
Roman Patrician with Busts
of his Ancestors
Young Woman with a Stylus
• Women were not equal to men, thus rarely
portrayed in art
• Probably commissioned by a rich family as
decoration for a room women often met in
Young Woman with a
Stylus
Religion
• Many sculptures of the gods and goddesses
give a personification to the Roman beliefs
• Gods and goddesses were depicted as average
citizens in order to relate to the Roman people
• Gives us a visual insight to Roman religion
The Pantheon
• Was the first religious structure of this type,
using an oculus to allow light into the building
• Light circles around to show the different gods
and goddesses at different times during the day
Pantheon, Rome
Bacchus and the Four Seasons
• Use of the nude was very common, showing a
Roman confidence in the body
• Bacchus blends in with the procession of
Romans on the sarcophagus
Bacchus and the Four Seasons
Mythology
• Artistic portrayal of Roman myth helps
historians and literary experts put together the
missing links in lost myths
• Gives a look into passionate subjects that the
Romans greatly valued: myth and literature
The Laestrygonians Bombard Odysseus’ Ships
• Taken from Homer’s Odyssey, showing one of
the many struggles Odysseus went through after
the Trojan War
The Laestrygonians Bombard
Odysseus’ Ships
• Painting is framed by painted columns, to give
a look into another world by using depth
Healing of the Wounded Aeneas
• Taken from Virgil’s Aeneid, showing Aeneas
after he is wounded in a battle
• Aeneas is considered a father of Rome, so this
picture gave Romans a sense of national pride
Iapyx’s Healing of the
Wounded Aeneas
Why is Rome an
Agrarian Society?
Agrarian Societies
Def: Societies, the first being Mesopotamia and Egypt, that
subsisted through agriculture centered on the use of the plow.
- When the plow first replaced the horticultural practice of
hoeing, the plow was drawn by man. Early in the emergence of
the Simple Agrarian societies, oxen were trained to draw the
plow. The plow killed weeds and struck further into the soil,
turning over more vital nutrients to growing crops.
- This advancement in subsistence technology led to a
dramatic spike in population (from 10,000 to 50,000 in
Mesopotamian Uruk by 3,000 B.C.)
- As land could produce more, it became increasingly more
valuable, facilitating the desire for a ruling class to conduct
warfare and conquest.
- As land area increased, trading became more complicated
and more difficult. Metals in the form of money were used to
replace formerly tradable goods such as food or material.
Oxen Drawn Plow
Advanced Agrarian Societies
Def: Advanced Agrarian Societies still subsisted on the plow, but
had now discovered iron smelting. They used iron in war,
construction, and farming.
- Advancements in technology and the expansion of empirical
forces caused another population increase. (Ex. Ancient Egypt
had less than 15 million members, while the Roman Empire had
at least 70 million members and possible 120 million members
at its height)
- A large increase in population and territory led to dividing
labor not only between individual specialties (e.g. Carpenter &
Soldier) but between cities and towns as well (e.g. The Romans
identified North African and Spain as producers of figs and olive
oil while Egypt produced salted meats and grain).
- Food production was the economic center of Rome, and
conquest was its industry. Prisoners were made into slaves,
which at one point constituted ~20% of the population of the
Roman Empire.
Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society
- Roman currency, in this
case Denarii (silver), took
the form of round coins.
Initially, coins were
decorative, and traded in
bulk amounts by their
physical weight. During
the empire, the coins began
to represent greater
amounts to make trading
easier.
- The Romans conducted trade across the world,
extending all the way to China, as well as their own
provinces. The main exports from Rome and Italy were
grapes and olive oil. Mining and Quarrying were also
practiced, mostly for construction of buildings, roads and
aqueducts throughout the Empire. Ultimately the
complex economic system rivaled 17th and 18th century
market economies such as England and the Netherlands
Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society
Rome as an Advanced Agrarian Society
- The class structure of Rome mirrored its predecessors in
Egypt and Ancient Greece. Upper classes emerged that
held disproportionate share of land, and therefore of
wealth.
-The Social Classes:
-Senatores or Senatorial Class
-Equites or Equestrians
-Three more property-owning classes
-Proletarii
- Like most other Agrarian societies, Rome functioned as
a Monarchy (753-509 BC), then later as an Republic(50931 BC) and finally as an Empire (31BC-476AD)
- Rex, Senatores/Consul/Praefectus/Pontifex Maximus,
imperator Caesar
Rome in 117 A.D., Emperor Trajan
~2,300,000 mi2