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DNA Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA carries genetic information • _______determines an organism’s traits • How does DNA achieve its control? • By producing ________(enzymes) • Enzymes are important because they control the chemical reactions needed for life Structure of DNA • Very long molecule • Made of repeating subunits called nucleotides: Composition of Nucleotide • Simple sugar- ___________________ • Phosphate group – PO4 • Nitrogen base- A carbon ring structure that contains one or more Nitrogen’s • guanine(G) Adenine(A) Cytosine(C) Thymine(T) – 4 possible DNA nucleotides depending on nitrogen bases Nucleotides Cont • Nucleotides join together to form long chains • The phosphate group of one nucleotide bonding to the deoxyribose sugar of an adjacent nucleotide. This form the backbone of DNA • The nitrogen bases stick out DNA Nitrogen Bases • In DNA, the amount of adenine is always equal to the amount of thymine • The amount of guanine is always equal to the amount of cytosine Base Pair Rules • • • • Adenine always pairs with thymine Guanine always bonds with Cytosine A-G-T-C-C opposite strand would be T-C-A-G-G James Watson and Francis Crick • __________helix is like a long zipper that is twisted How can organisms be so different from each other if their genetic material is made of the same four nucleotides DNA Replication • DNA is copied _____________ cell division • Without replication, new cells would only have half of DNA from their parents • When a DNA molecule replicates, 2 molecules are formed • Each molecule has 1 original strand and one new strand Steps of DNA Replication • 1) Two nucleotide strands separate at their base pairs. Hydrogen bonds between are broken • 2) Free nucleotides base pair with exposed nucleotides • 3) The sugar and phosphate parts of adjacent nucleotide strands bond together to form backbone of new strand • 4) The process of replication produces 2 molecules of DNA. Each new molecule has been newly synthesized from free nucleotides in the cell DNA Transcription • DNA encodes the instructions for making ____________thereby controlling the cells RNA • Ribonucleic acid • Different from DNA in 3 ways – 1. RNA is single stranded – 2. Ribose-sugar – 3. Uracil takes the place of thymine RNA’s JOB • RNA ________instructions from the DNA on how a protein should be assembled • After this, they then assemble the protein, amino acid by amino acid until the protein is made. Three types of RNA • mRNA- messenger RNA • Brings information from the DNA in the nucleus to the cell’s cytoplasm • rRNA- ribosomal RNA- Ribosome's made of ribosomal RNA clamp onto the mRNA and use its information to assemble the amino acids in the correct order • tRNA- transfer RNA- transports amino acids to the ribosome to be assembled into a protein Transcription- takes place in Nucleus • 1) The process of transcription begins as enzymes unzip the molecule of DNA, just as they do during DNA replication • 2) As DNA unzips, free RNA nucleotides pair with complementary DNA nucleotides on one of the DNA strands • When the process of base pairing is completed, the mRNA molecule breaks away as the DNA rejoins. • The mRNA leaves the nucleus and enters cytoplasm The Genetic Code What is the genetic code? • A code is needed to convert the language of mRNA into the language of proteins • • • • • Amino Acids Building blocks of proteins 20 amino acids For every 1 amino acid there are 3 nucleotides Each set of 3 nucleotides makes a codon There are 64 codons in the genetic code Genetic Code Continued • Some codons do not code for amino acids, they provide instructions for assembling proteins • UAG is a start codon UAA is a stop codon • Genetic code is universal Translation: From mRNA to Protein • The process of converting the information in a sequence of nitrogen bases in mRNA into a sequence of amino acids that make up protein Translation • • • • Takes place in _____________in the cytoplasm mRNA- made in nucleus, ribosomes attach to them tRNA- bring the amino acids to the ribosomes Correct translation-depends on the joining of each mRNA codon with the correct tRNA molecule Codon and Anticodon • • • • Group of three amino acids-CODON Anti-codon- opposite code A-C-A codon anticodon is U-G-U Steps of Translation • 1) the starting end of the mRNA strand attaches to the ribosome • 2)tRNA which are carrying a specific amino acid , approach the ribosome • 3) The tRNA anticodon pairs with the first mRNA codon and temporarily join Steps of Translation • 4) The first code from mRNA is AUG, this signals the start of protein synthesis • 5) The ribosome slides along the mRNA to the next codon • 6) A new tRNA molecule carrying amino acid pairs with the 2nd mRNA codon • 7) When the first and 2nd amino acids are in place, an enzyme joins them by forming a peptide bond between them Steps of the Translation • 8) As the process continues, a chain of amino acids is formed until the ribosome reaches a stop codon on the mRNA strand Types of Mutations • Any change in the DNA sequence that also changes the protein it codes for