Download PROCARYOTIC AND EUCARYOTIC CELLS

Natural Science 100 Lecture
Review for the 4th Midterm
(This document was revised at 4:25 PM on Mar. 19, 2009)
NOTE:
1. Underlined and bolded items within each major (capitalized) section
are emphasized on the midterm.
2. Check the website:
http://occonline.occ.cccd.edu/online/fvisco
or
http://occonline.occ.cccd.edu/online/faculty/HomePage.cfm?PageID=54
for an updated version of this review so as to have the most accurate
version for study purposes …. Also view pdf version of slides
3. Chapters in the text book that apply are listed at the beginning of
each major section below.
4. Midterm will be 40 questions with each question worth ¾ of a point;
total test is 30 points (40 points x ¾ = 30 points).
5. Bring a ParSCORE Test Form No. F-289-PAR-L (its light blue).
PROCARYOTIC AND EUCARYOTIC CELLS - Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that there are two categories of cells; prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells.
2.
Know that prokaryotic cells are considered the simplest cells and that they do not
contain internal membrane-bound structures or compartments.
3.
Know that eukaryotic cells are considered the most advanced and that they contain
internal, membrane-bound structures called organelles.
NUCLEUS AND CYTOPLASM - Lectures 4a; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that all cells have a plasma membrane and it surrounds the entire cell.
2.
Know that the nucleus is a membrane bound organelle.
3.
Know that the nucleus contains the genetic material (called DNA or genes
chromatin) which is the blueprint for the products that the cell will make.
4.
Know that the nucleus may contain one or more nucleoli (nucleolus = one).
5.
Know that the nucleolus is found in the nucleus and that the nucleolus makes another
cellular structure called the ribosome (…….and ribosomes make proteins).
1
6.
Know that the cytoplasm is that part of the cell that includes everything in the cell
except for the nucleus and the plasma membrane.
7.
Know that the cytosol is the cytoplasm without (minus) the organelles.
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM AND GOLGI COMPLEX - Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that surrounding the nucleus (and, therefore, located in the cytoplasm) is a convoluted
membrane called the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
2.
Know that ribosomes are found on the membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum.
3.
Know that the ribosomes make proteins.
4
Know that the proteins in the rough endoplasmic reticulum travel into the membranous tubes
of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.
5.
Know that the smooth endoplasmic reticulum has three functions: (1) synthesis of fatty
acids and lipids, (2) detoxification of carcinogens and other foreign substances such as
pesticides, and (3) export of proteins to outside of the cell.
6.
Know that proteins are modified and tagged for specific delivery options in the golgi
complex.
LYSOSOMES AND APOPTOSIS - Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that lysosomes are membrane bound organelles that are made from the golgi
complex and that they contain digestive (hydrolytic) enzymes.
2.
Know that lysosomes can combine or merge with food vacuoles and after combining the
enzymes of the lysosome will digest all of the polymers to monomers.
3.
Know that apoptosis is programmed cell death and that during apoptosis, cells die and
their contents are digested to monomers.
4.
Know that apoptosis is responsible for digestion obsolete tissues during development
such as the webbing between fingers and toes during the embryonic formation.
MITOCHONDRION and CHLOROPLAST - Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that the mitochondrion contains enzymes that degrade glucose and produce ATP from
the energy contained in the covalent bonds between carbon and hydrogen atoms.
2.
Know that ATP is a universal energy molecule used by all living things to do cellular work
such as muscle contraction and the synthesis of polymers from monomers.
2
3.
Know that the process of glucose degradation in the mitochondrion is called cell
respiration.
4.
Know the basic reaction for respiration as represented below:
+Enzymes
C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2 (oxygen)-------------------
-------------- CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2O (water) + 36 ATPs + heat
5.
Know that the mitochondrion has its own DNA (chromatin) and ribosomes.
6.
Know that mitochondria may have originated when a larger cell ingested a smaller cell
resulting in a symbiotic relationship in which the smaller cell performed the function of
respiration and the larger cell provides nutrients and a home for the smaller cell
7.
Know that photosynthesis occurs within the chloroplast.
8.
Know that the photosynthetic pigments have the ability to convert light waves from the sun
(or from a light bulb) into the energy of chemical bonds – specifically into the energy of the
electrons that links carbon atoms to hydrogen atoms.
9.
Know that the process of photosynthesis is summarized in the following chemical
reaction:
+ LIGHT
CO2 (carbon dioxide) + H2O (water) ------------------ Glucose (C6H12O6) + O2 (oxygen)
+ Chlorophyll
10.
Know that chloroplast (like the mitochondrion) contain their own DNA and ribosomes.
11.
Know that endosymbiosis is an evolutionary process by which larger cells are thought to
have engulfed smaller cells whereby the larger cells and smaller cells coexist in a symbiotic
relationship. Example would be when a large non-photosynthetic cell eats but does not
digest a small photosynthetic cell. Both cells coexist and large cell provides nutrients and
protection for the small photosynthetic cell and the small photosynthetic cell provides the
products of photosynthesis (glucose) to the large cell.
VACUOLES – Lecture 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Vacuoles are membrane bound water and food storage organelles.
CILIUM (CILIA pl.) AND FLAGELLUM (FLAGELLA pl.) - Lectures 4b; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that cilia and flagella are hair-like projections found on some cells, and that cilia and
flagella are able to move in a coordinated way and thus help certain cells move through a
watery environment or in other cases cilia may move the environment over the surface of the
cell.
3
THE CYTOSKELETON - Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that the cell’s cytoskeleton is composed of a variety of fibers that provide for the
cell’s structure and internal movement of organelles a process called cyclosis or
cytoplasmic streaming.
THE PLASMA MEMBRANE, CELL WALL AND CELLULOSE – Lectures 4; Chapter 20 in
book
1.
Know that the cell wall is a nonliving material composed of cellulose
2.
Know that the only cells of plants, fungi, bacteria and algae have cell walls but all cells
have plasma membranes.
3.
Know that animal cells have a plasma membrane but do not have a cell wall.
4.
Know that the cell wall may become very thick as in the woody parts of a trees or shrubs.
DNA STRUCTURE AND REPLICATION – Lecture 5; Chapter 26 in book
1.
Know that DNA is a double helix made of two chains of nucleic acids.
2.
Know that nucleic acid (polymer) is a chain of nucleotides (monomers).
3.
Know that DNA nucleotides are made of 1 deoxyribose (sugar), 1 phosphate, and 1 base
(base will be one of the following four bases: A or T or G or C).
4
Know that base pairing is the process by which two chains of nucleic acids are held together.
5
Know that the following are the base pairings that are found in the DNA double helix:
A – T, T – A, G – C, C – G ……. This is the Genetic Code.
6
Know that in DNA replication that one DNA double helix (original) forms two DNA
double helices and each new helix are identical to each other and identical to the
original DNA double helix.
7.
Know that the nucleosome is composed of DNA wrapped around proteins.
1.
Know that Franklin’s photo confirmed the structure of DNA for Watson and Crick.
9.
Know that heterochromatin is tightly condensed or coiled and is DNA that is inactive,
whereas, euchromatin is not tightly condensed or coiled and is DNA that is active (in
making protein).
PROTEIN SYNTHSIS – Lecture 5; Chapter 26 in book
1.
Know that proteins are synthesized through two processes called transcription and
translation.
4
2.
Know that transcription is the process by which DNA makes an RNA (mRNA) copy of
a portion of one of its strands by base pairing ……. RNA becomes a copy of DNA or the
genetic code.
3.
Know that DNA and RNA nucleotides are both composed of sugar + phosphate+ base; but
that in DNA the nucleotides are composed of the sugar deoxyribose + phosphate + one of the
following, A or T or C or G, whereas, RNA nucleotides are composed of the sugar ribose +
phosphate + one of the following bases, A or U (instead of T) or G or C.
4.
Know that after DNA makes the mRNA transcript, the mRNA transcript goes to the
ribosome.
5.
Know that a codon is defined as group of three RNA nucleotides which code for a
particular or specific amino acid …. Codons are copies of DNA genetic code.
6.
Know that each of the 20 different amino acids has at least one codon.
7.
Know that the order of codons along the mRNA determines the order of amino acids in
a protein
8.
Know that translation is the process by which the order of mRNA nucleotides (codons)
is translated into the order of amino acids in a protein.
9.
Know that translation occurs in the ribosome.
10.
Know that the section of DNA that codes for the amino acid sequence in a protein is
known as a gene.
11.
Know that in an organism like a human, that skin cells, bone cells, muscle cells, nerve cells,
etc. all have the same DNA, but that that DNA is differentially expressed so as to make skin
cell products in a skin cell, bone cell products in bone cells, etc.
12.
Know that 6 day old human embryo cells are totipotent and therefore can become any
of the 220 types of human cells whereas 4 week old human embryo cells are
pluripotent.
13.
Know that when a salamander loses a leg that the heterochromatin becomes euchromatin in
the pluripotent cells to make proteins to grow a new leg.
14.
Know that UV (ultraviolet light) can cause DNA mutations called thymine dimers.
15.
Know that some thymine dimers can be removed from mutated DNA by DNA repair
enzymes
16.
Know that PCR (polymerase chain reaction) can start with one double helix and after 20
replications (DNA replications) forms 1,000,000 double helices.
5
17.
Know that restriction enzymes (EcoR1) are enzymes that digest (cut) DNA at specific
nucleotide sequences which causes a strand of DNA to break into pieces known as
fragments.
18.
Know that DNA fragments formed by restriction enzymes can be separated from each other
(by the process known as electrophorsis) and that the distribution of these fragments in a gel
forms a DNA “fingerprint.”
19.
Know that DNA fingerprints can be used to identify a suspect’s DNA from blood or semen
or skin cells left at crime scenes.
20.
Be able to match the DNA fingerprints from a crime scene to those of DNA fingerprints
of suspects.
VIRUSES, HIV, AND AIDS – Lecture 6; Chapter 22 in book
1.
Know that viruses are not living.
2.
Know that all 6 kingdoms of life have viruses which can infect them.
3.
Know that all tissues in all organisms have viruses that infect them.
4.
Know that viruses are made primarily of a nucleic acid core (of either RNA or DNA)
surrounded by a protein coat called a capsid.
5.
Know that in the lytic life cycle of a virus that the virus DNA enters the cell and
immediately starts the cell immediate starts the synthesis of new viruses.
6.
Know that in the lysogenic cycle of a virus that the virus DNA enters the cell and forms
a provirus (by attaching the viral DNA to the host cell DNA).
7.
Know that retroviruses have the following structure:
a.
RNA = nucleic acid
b.
a protein coat
c.
a cell membrane that it picked up from last cell it infected
d.
an enzyme called reverse transcriptase
8.
Know that HIV is a retroviruses and has the following mechanism for infecting cells;
a.
RNA nucleic acid core and reverse transcriptase enter host cell
b.
Reverse transcriptase makes a DNA copy of the viral RNA
c.
DNA copy attaches to host cell DNA as an HIV provirus
d.
HIV provirus makes HIV products and more HIV
9.
Know that HIV can infect and kill human immune system cells.
10.
Know that the human body’s ability to fight disease is severely compromised when HIV kills
human immune system cells.
6
11.
Know that AIDS is characterized by a series of secondary diseases (infections, cancer, etc.)
that result from a severely compromised immune system.
BIOTECHNOLOGY Lecture 7; Chapter 26 in book
1.
Know that plasmids are extra pieces of bacterial chromosomes that are used in genetic
engineering.
2.
Know that viruses can be vectors in gene therapy through the following steps:
(a) Remove a good human gene from a normal from human cell (cell #1),
(b) splice the good gene onto viral genetic material,
(c) place the virus with the good human gene into an abnormal human cell (cell #2)
which has a bad human gene,
(d) the abnormal cell now has a the good gene and makes good gene products,
(e) the good gene products changes the abnormal cell into a normal cell.
3.
The following is the scheme that was used for creating the female sheep known as
“Dolly the Clone”:
(a) The nucleus of a skin cell (somatic cell) is taken from Sheep #1 (a white
faced female sheep),
(b) An egg cell with its nucleus removed (enucleated) is taken from Sheep #2
black faced sheep),
(c) The nucleus from Sheep #1 is combined with the enucleated egg cell from
Sheep #2 and a cell called a zygote is formed,
(d) the zygote is placed into the uterus of Sheep #3 (another black faced
female sheep) and the zygote develops into Dolly the clone.
(e) Dolly the clone is genetically identical to Sheep #1
4.
Know that stem cell cloning results in production of organs which are genetically identical
to the person that has donated the nucleus from a somatic (body) cell.
RESPIRATION (some covered in Lecture 4) – Lecture 8; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that the first law of thermodynamics states that energy may change form but is neither
created nor destroyed – in other words all of the energy that ever was is somewhere in the
universe, but it may be changing forms; light to heat or light to chemical energy, etc.
2.
Know that the second law of thermodynamics states that energy goes from a more
“concentrated” state to a more dispersed state – such as going from the energy stored in log
going to the energy of light and heat as the log burns.
3.
Know that metabolism is sum of all of the chemical reactions in a living system, such as a
cell.
4.
Know that anabolism is a subdivision of metabolism that involves the synthesis of larger
molecules from smaller molecules.
5.
Know that catabolism is a subdivision of metabolism that involves the breakdown of
larger molecules to smaller molecules.
7
6.
Know that oxidation involves chemical reactions by which electrons are given up; if
something is oxidized it gives up an electron.
7.
Know that reduction involves chemical reactions by which electrons are accepted; if
something is reduced it has accepted an electron.
8.
Know that ATP is a molecule that serves as the energy molecule in all living things; for
example ATP is used in muscle cell contraction, synthesis of polymers from monomers,
active transport in membranes, nerve impulses, etc.
9.
Know that a cell has only a one second supply of ATP at any point in time.
10.
Know that a cell produces and consumes 10,000,000 APTs per second per cell.
11.
Know the following is the basic reaction for cell respiration (respiration or aerobic
respiration:
C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2
CO2 + H2O + ATP + Heat
12.
Know that when one molecule of glucose (6 carbons, 12 hydrogen, 6 oxygen) is broken
down its chemical bonds release enough energy to produce a net of 36 ATP molecules.
13.
Know that in eukaryotic cells that the degradation of glucose to produce ATPs occurs
primarily in the mitochondrion.
14.
Know that the degradation of glucose to produce ATPs occurs in a series of chemical
reactions that are generally called Cell Respiration or Respiration.
15.
Know that the electron transport system in respiration demonstrates both oxidation
and reduction
16.
Know that aerobic respiration uses oxygen gas (O2) and produces 36 ATPs from one
molecule of glucose.
17.
Know that anaerobic metabolism (as in yeast fermentation) occurs without oxygen gas
(O2) and produces only 2 ATPs.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS (some also covered in Lecture 4) – Lecture 9; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that in entropic doom light is converted into heat through most of the universe
2.
Know that photosynthesis converts light into chemical energy.
3.
Know that chlorophyll is a green pigment and it converts light into high energy electrons
(chemical energy) which is an example of the first law of thermodynamics.
8
4.
Know that the basic reactants and products for photosynthesis are:
Light
CO2 + H2O
C6H12O6 (glucose) + O2
Chlorophyll
5.
Know that when visible light waves strike chlorophyll, that the chlorophyll molecules is
specifically set up structurally so that a specific electron contained in the chlorophyll molecule
becomes excited and goes into an outer electron shell.
6.
Summary of photosynthesis. Light energy strikes chlorophyll molecules. The light
causes special electrons in the chlorophyll molecule to be excited and it leaves the
chlorophyll molecule. This excited electron is then considered chemical energy. The
excited electron is eventually transferred to glucose where it is used to form chemical
bonds between carbon hydrogen and oxygen.
7.
Know that blue and red light and those wavelengths or colors most absorbed by
chlorophyll and most used for energy in the process of photosynthesis.
8.
Know that a leaf looks green because the chlorophyll absorbs all of the white light from
the sun but then re-emits only green light which strikes our eyes and we have learned
that the sensation is called green.
BIOLOGICAL MEMBRANES – Lecture 10; Chapter 20 in book
1.
Know that membranes are composed of special lipids called phospholipids
2.
Know that phospholipids have a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tails.
3.
Know that the phospholipids head is attracted to water.
4.
Know that the phospholipids tails are attracted to other phospholipids tail and that they
are not attracted to water and are in fact repelled by water.
5.
Know that the structure of cell membrane is that of two layers of phospholipids, called
a phospholipids bi-layer.
6.
Know that in the phospholipids bi-layer that the phospholipids tails are attracted to
each other and the phospholipids heads are attracted to the water on the inside and
outside of the cell.
7.
Know that embedded in the two layers of phospholipids are a variety of other molecules
including proteins, glycoproteins and cholesterol.
8.
Know that glycoproteins are composed of protein and carbohydrate.
9
9.
Know that HIV has glycoproteins on the surface which match up with glycoproteins on
the surface of human cells during HIV infection
10.
Know that glycoproteins are used for communication between cells
11.
Know that Brownian motion is the random movement of molecules, ions, and atoms due to
their kinetic energy or energy of motion.
12.
Know that Diffusion is the movement of molecules, atoms, or ions from a region of
higher concentration of those substances to a region of lower concentration of those
same substances.
13.
Know that Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane.
14.
Know that an isotonic solution has equal concentrations of solute and solvent on either
side of a membrane.
15.
Know that a hypertonic solution has a greater concentration of solute in the solution on the
outside of the cell (or dialysis tubing) compared to the inside of the cell.
16.
Know that a cell placed into a hypertonic environment will lose water by osmosis and
the cell will shrink (= plasmolysis) in volume.
17.
Know that a hypotonic solution has a lesser amount of solute in the solution outside of the
cell compared to the solute concentration inside the cell.
18.
Know that a cell placed into a hypotonic solution will gain water through osmosis and
the cell’s volume will increase.
19.
Know that facilitated diffusion is the movement of molecules across a membrane by
diffusion but with the help of a membrane protein carrier.
20.
Know that active transport is the movement across a cell membrane against diffusion
with the help of a membrane carrier molecule and with the use of ATP.
21.
Know that cocaine blocks the reuptake of dopamine.
10