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PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY (SOCSCI 1)
Mrs. Daryl D. Legion
Handout 1
Auguste Comte – father of sociology
- An early nineteenth-century French philosopher who conceived the word sociology
in 1839
- he intended to name the new science as social physics, but rejected the term after a
Belgian scholar Adolphe Quetelet called his area of endeavor social physics
What is Sociology?
 A combination of Latin and Greek; socio (society) and logy (study on a high level)
 Sociology means the study of society (men/human beings in interdependence) on a highly
generalized abstract level.
 The unit of sociological study is never an individual, but at least two individuals somehow
related to one another. It is interested in what happens when man meets man.
Definition of Sociology
 The study of social relation that affects human behavior.
 The science of society and the social interactions taking place in it. It focuses attention on all
kinds of social interactions: social acts, social relationships, social organization, social structures
and social processes. The social facts it gathers include the recurrent repetitive forms of
behavior: attitudes, beliefs, values, norms and social order.
Importance of Sociology
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Sociological information enables us to understand our society more objectively and to see our
place in it.
The study of sociology enables us to learn application of scientific information to daily life and
problems.
It helps us to replace superstitions and misinformation by accurate knowledge about human
behavior.
Early Sociologists
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Auguste Comte (1798-1867) – he believed that sociology would enable men to achieve social
harmony .
Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) – An English philosopher who believed that one could learn a
great deal about social growth by comparing primitive groups with more advanced groups.
Karl Marx (1848-1883) - A German who saw history as involving a series of struggles between
different social classes. He wrote “The Communist Manifesto”
William Graham Sumner (1840-1910) – An American who believed that the evolution of
society paralleled biological evolution.
Lester Frank Ward (1847-1939) – The first president of the American Sociological Association
(1906). He believed that societies tend to progress from national freedom to political freedom
and to social freedom which required planning of social sciences like sociology.
Ferdinand Toennies (1855-1936) He observed the change from close-knit communities to
“gemeinschaft” in which the individual has no close ties with others.
Emile Durkheim (1858-1971) Father of Modern Sociology. His work SUICIDE was one of his
contributions to sociology and included his development of the concept of anomie.
Max Weber (1864-1920) He provided us with his concept of the ideal type and identified
various characteristics of bureaucracy as an ideal type.
Charles Horton Cooley (1864-1929) He preferred to look first at smaller intimate, face-to-face
groups such as families and groups.
 The first teaching of Sociology in the Philippines was credited to F. Valentin Marin at
the University of Santo Tomas in 1896. In 1911, Murray Bartlett and A.E.W. Salt
initiated sociology at the University of the Philippines.
AREAS Of SOCIOLOGY
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Social Organization –this studies social groups, social institutions, social stratification, mobility,
ethnic relations and bureaucracy.
Social Change, Social Organization, Social Disorganization – this includes the study of change
in culture and social relations and the current social problems in society.
Social Psychology – this studies human nature as the outcome of group life personality
formation, social attitudes and collective behavior.
Human Ecology – this studies the behavior of a given population and its relationship to the
group’s present social institutions.
Population Studies – this is concerned with population number, composition, change and
quality as they influence the economic, political and social system.
Sociological Theory and Method – this is concerned with listing the applicability and usefulness
of the principles of group life as bases for the regulation on man’s social environment.
Applied Sociology – this applies scientific knowledge to solve problems in various fields of
criminology, enology, social work, education, communication, marriage, family, etc.
The Sciences Related to Sociology but which differ in emphasis:
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History – History provides the data and information needed by the sociologists in studying the
forces that influence man’s behavior
Political Science – this is the study of patterns of power, authority, dominance and subordination
among the members of society. Polsci is concerned with the development of principles in the
conduct of government; sociology is interested in the form of social interaction going on.
Economics – This is the study of man’s way of making a living and the society’s way of using and
allocating resources. The economic activities of man involve the production, distribution, and
consumption of material goods and services. These processes influence the social behavior of a
group and that of the individual.
Social Psychology – This is the study of social development of the individual and that of
elementary forms of collective behavior which developed into social movements. Psych and Soc
are grouped together to understand the individual’s behavior in his interpersonal relationship
and group membership.
Anthropology – The interest of Anthro is in the primitive and folk cultures Social anthropology
deals with the social structure and culture of groups
PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY (SOCSCI 1)
Mrs. Daryl D. Legion
Handout 2
Scientific Method –
Refers collectively to a series of steps, which enable sociologists to study social phenomena in a
reasonably objective fashion.
Methods of Sociological Research
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Questionnaire and Interview Studies – systematic ways of asking questions under scientific
controls.
Case Studies – complete detailed account of some phenomenon.
Participant-observer studies- the participant observer seeks insights by taking himself in
whatever he is studying.
Survey – involves representative sample of a population from where the subjects were chosen
Steps in Sociological Research
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Defining the problem
Constructing hypotheses. Hypotheses may be defined as a working assumption temporarily
accepted to be true.
Collecting evidence for testing hypotheses – includes using available data, interview,
questionnaire…etc.
Analysis of the Data – employment of some selective processing to make use of only those that
are the best and pertinent& eliminate those doubtful value.
Verification & Conclusion – further checking and verification of findings.
Pure Science & Applied Science
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Pure Science – a pure search for knowledge use.
Applied Science – the search for ways of using scientific knowledge to solve practical problems.
Roles of the Sociologists
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As a Social Reformer - the sociologist in this view plays the role of arbiter of all branches of
knowledge for the welfare of men.
As an Administrator – sociologists are called upon by many universities and agencies to make
decisions concerning hiring and firing, promotion and tenure of their personnel.
As a Research Scientist – the sociologists foremost task is to discover and organize knowledge
about social life.
As a Teacher – the major career of most sociologists.
As a policy consultant – sociological prediction can also help to estimate the probable effects of a
social policy and thus contribute to the selection of policies.
As a technician – they are engaged in planning and in conducting community action programs.
PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLOGY
Mrs. Daryl D. Legion
Handout 3
Definitions of Culture
 Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, customs
and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society. (Edward
Tylor).
 Culture is an organization of learned behavior which together with tangible and intangible
products, is shared by and transmitted among the members of society. It is a design for
living. (Ralph Linton, 1960)
 It is what we think, do, and have as members of society. (Bierstedt, 1972)
 Culture is an organization of phenomena that are dependent upon symbols; phenomena
which include acts (patterns of behavior), objects (tools and things), ideas (beliefs,
knowledge), and sentiments (attitudes and values).
 Culture is everything, which is socially learned and shared by the members of a society.
Culture and Civilization
 Culture was something man attained as he developed his skills and rational capacities. Also
came to refer as way of life of people.
 Culture becomes civilization only when it possesses a written language, science, philosophy, a
highly specialized division of labor, and a complex technology and political system.
Elements of Culture
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Material Culture – consists of man-made objects which are called artifacts.
Non-material Culture – consists of the words people use, ideas, customs, and beliefs they hold,
and the habits they follow.
Kinds of Norms
 Since culture tells us the way in which things should be done, we can then say that
culture is normative.
 Norms – standard patterns of behavior
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Folkways – these are simply the customary, normal, habitual ways a group does things. They
have something to do with manners, rules of courtesy and tradition practices of particular folk.
Non-adherents do not necessarily suffer severe disapproval.
Mores – These are strong ideas of right and wrong that require certain acts and forbid others. It
has a stronger moral implication than folkways. Violation of the mores is considered serious.
Institutions – are organized, long established relatively permanent ways of satisfying
fundamental human needs and interests. Institutions begin in the folkways, but differ from them
in that they are more formal and more utilitarian.
Laws – are written and formalized social norms enacted by the people who are vested with
political power and enforced through the state by the person or organization whose role or
function is so defined.
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Customary Law – lacks codification, settled procedure, and enforcement specialists.
Enacted Law – codification, settled procedure, and enforcement specialists are
characteristics of enacted law. It requires a concentration of government power, and it
is accompanied by a host of enforcement specialists.
Regulatory Law – another type of enacted law. It has been developed in answer to the
need for regulating secondary laws.
IDEAS – these are symbols of aspects of culture. They consist of beliefs and values.
 Beliefs – are ideas which represent man’s convictions about the reality of things and
serve as explanations to understand existence.
 Values – are ideas which are considered desirable or undesirable as derived from the
expressed preference of people.
Aspects of Cultural Variation
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Subcultures – is a segment of society which shares a distinctive pattern of mores, folkways and
values which differ from pattern of larger society.
Countercultures – is a subculture that rejects societal norms and values and seeks alternative
lifestyles.
Culture shock – the experience of disorientation and frustration that occurs when an individual
finds himself among people with culture different than his own.
Attitude Toward Cultural Variation
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Ethnocentrism – refers to the tendency to assume that one’s culture and way of life are superior
to all others.
Cultural Relativism – views people’s behavior from the perspective of their own culture.
Xenocentrism – the belief that the products, styles, or ideas of one’s society are inferior to those
that originate elsewhere.
PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
Introduction to Sociology
Mrs. Daryl D. Legion
Handout 4
SOCIALIZATION AND PERSONALITY
Socialization – is a lifelong process of social experience by which individuals develop their human potential
and learn the patterns of their culture.
Personality – from the Latin word persona meaning masks. It is defined as the sum total of all the traits and
characteristics of a person that distinguished him from another.
Determinants of Personality
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Biological Inheritance (Heredity) - are significant in personality formation for they set limits to
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learning or enable the person to learn.
Environment – refers to the location, climate, topography and natural resources.
Sigmund Freud
He lived in Vienna at a time when most Europeans viewed human behavior as a reflection of
biological forces. He was a physician. His crowning achievement was the development of psychoanalysis.
Basic Human Needs
Instinct – very general human needs in form of urges or drives.
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Life Instinct (Eros) – all human have a basic need for bonding.
Death Instinct (Thanatos) – aggressive drive of people.
Freud’s Model of Personality (Psychoanalytic Theory)
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Id – (Latin word for “it”) represents the human being’s basic needs, which are unconscious and
demand immediate satisfaction. Id is present at birth which means that a newborn infant is basically
a bundle of needs- for attention, touching, food and so forth.
ego – (Latin word for “I”) represents the conscious attempt to balance the innate pleasure-seeking
drives of the human organism and the demands of society. It develops in response to the fact that we
cannot have everything we want.
superego – (Latin word for “above”, “beyond”) is the presence of culture within the individual. It
may be thought of as our understanding of why we cannot have everything we want. It is based on
internalized values and norms and is basically the same as conscience.
Various Stages of Development
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Oral Stage (birth to one year) - In this stage eating is the major source of satisfaction. Fixation at this
stage can lead to overeating or alcoholism in adulthood.
Anal Stage (1-3 years) – the influencing stage at this factor is toilet training. Fixation at this stage may
result to personalities who are grasping and stingy.
Phallic Stage (3-6 years) – at this time the greatest source of pleasure comes from sex organs. This is
the time when the child desires the parent of the opposite sex so that boys desire their mothers
(Oedipus complex), and girls desire their fathers (electra complex).
Latency Period (6 – adolescence) In this stage children turn their attention to people outside their
families like teachers & friends. Erotic impulses are dormant.
Genital Stage (adolescence and beyond) The sexual impulses become active again and the individual
focuses on the opposite sex, looks around for potential marriage partner, and prepares for marriage
and adult responsibilities.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) : Cognitive Development
He became one of the foremost psychologists of the century. His thinking centered on human
cognition – the process of thought and understanding. Early in his career, Piaget became fascinated with the
behavior of his own three children, wondering not only what they knew but also how they understood the
world. He gradually concluded that that children’s conception of the world depends upon their age.
The Sensorimotor Stage (1-2 years)
This is the first stage in Piaget’s model. In this stage the level of human development in which the
world is experienced is only through sensory contact.
In this stage the infant explores the world by touching, looking, sucking and listening.
The Pre Operational Stage (2-7)
In this stage the level of human development in which language and other symbols are first used.
Using symbols, children can now engage the world mentally—that is, without having direct sensory contact
with it.
The Concrete Operational Stage (7-11)
The level of human development in this stage is characterized by the use of logic to understand
objects or events. In this stage, children begin to think logically they connect events in terms of cause and
effect.
The Formal Operational Stage (12-)
The fourth stage is the formal operational stage, which is the level of human development
characterized by highly abstract thought and ability to imagine alternatives to reality.
George Herbert Mead: The Social Self
Within the discipline of sociology, Mead is widely regarded as having made the greatest contribution
to explaining the process of socialization.
The Self
According to Mead, the basis of humanity is the self—the individual’s active awareness of existing in
the midst of society.
1. the self emerges as a result of social experience
2. social experience as the exchange of symbols—meanings shared by people engaged in social
interaction
3. in order to understand the intentions of others, humans assume one another’s point of view.
The Looking Glass Self
Charles Horton Cooley, one of Mead’s colleagues, suggested that others represent a mirror or looking
glass in which we imagine ourselves as they see us. A person’s self-conception is based on the responses of
others.
The I and the Me
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there is self as subject, by which we initiate any social action. (The I)
there is self as object, which is how we imaging ourselves from the perspective of someone else.(the
me)
Development of the Self
As children learn to use language and other symbols, the self begins to emerge in the form of play.
The last step in the development of the self occurs as children become able to see themselves as society in
general does.
AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION
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The Family – is the most important agent in socialization. It is the entire social world of children at
least until the onset of schooling. The family is also the central to the process of cultural transmission,
by which life is passed from one generation to the next.
Schooling- the most widely recognized task of schooling is to teach children a wide range of
knowledge and skills. Schools further socialize children into culturally approved sex roles.
Peer Groups – Peer groups are people in regular interaction who share common interests, social
position and similar age. The peer group differs from the family and the school by allowing children
an escape from the direct supervision of adults.
The Mass Media – are impersonal communication directed to a vast audience.
Public Opinion – Defined as the attitudes of people throughout a society about one or more
controversial issues.
PAMANTASAN NG CABUYAO
Introduction to Sociology
Mrs. Daryl D. Legion
Handout 5
DEVIANCE
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Deviance is the recognized violation of cultural norms.
Deviance includes many other types of nonconformity, some viewed as mild, others as more
serious.
Deviance involves differences, both negative and positive which causes us to react to others as
“outsiders”.
BIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION OF DEVIANCE
Early Research
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In 1876, Caesare Lombroso (1835-1909), an Italian Physician who worked in prisons, suggested that
criminals were physically distinctive—with low foreheads, prominent jaws and cheekbones,
protruding ears, hairiness, and usually long arms that made them resemble human beings’ apelike
ancestors.
Charles Buckman Goring (1870-1919) on the other hand, more carefully compared thousands of
convicts and non-criminals. He found great physical differences between criminals and noncriminals. He ruled out Lombroso’s research.
DELINQUENCY AND BODY STRUCTURE
William Sheldon (1949) suggested that body structure was significant.
1. ectomorphs, who were tall, thin and fragile;
2. endomorphs, who were short and fat; and
3. mesomorphs, who were muscular and athletic.
Sheldon reported that criminality was linked to muscular athletic body structure.
Sheldon and Eleonor Glueck (1950) however, cautioned that mesomorphic body structure was not
necessarily a cause of criminality. Mesomorphic males, they suggested, were somewhat more likely to be
raised with little affection and understanding from family members and consequently showed less
sensitivity towards others and tended to react aggressively to frustration,
Gibbons (1981) expecting muscular and athletic boys to be more physically aggressive than others,
thereby provoking the very behavior that is expected.
RECENT RESEARCH
In human development, sex is determined by chromosome, females having two X chromosomes
and males having one X and one Y. In perhaps one case 'in a thousand, genetic mutation causes a male to
have an extra Y chromosome, producing an XYY pattern.
Males with this XYY pattern appear somewhat more often in prisons and mental institutions. This
fact was taken to mean that they were prone to violent criminal behavior, but subsequent research has
refuted this conclusion, indicating only that such men are significantly taller and perhaps less intelligent
than average.
ROBERT MERTON: STRAIN THEORY
Emile Durkheim noted that modern societies are prone to anomie . or normlessness. Such a condition leaves
individuals socially unregulated and prone to deviance.
Robert Merton (1938, 1968) has applied Durkheim's concept of anomie by linking deviance to certain
societal imbalances. Merton's theory begins with the observation that financial success is a widespread goal
and that society endorses certain means to that end. Ideally, then success is achieved, on the one hand
through obtaining an appropriate education and working hard at a job. "Success" gained through theft or
other dishonest activities, on the other hand, is a violation of cultural norms. Therefore, if people are
socialized to want success and to play by the rules, conformity should result.
Responses To The Inability To Succeed (according to Merton)
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innovation - attempting to achieve approved goals using unconventional means. For example,
executives may engage in dishonest business practices or embezzle company funds
Such innovation results from the "strain" experienced when the value placed on wealth
overpowers the norms that regulate how wealth is to be acquired. The poor obviously experience
this strain to the extent that their aspirations for success are frustrated by a lack of educational and
job opportunities.
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ritualism. Common among people of modest social standards who have little opportunity to gain
more in life but fear risking what they have through innovation. This is illustrated by "bureaucratic
ritualists" -as lower-level officials who compulsively conform to rules to the point of losing sight of
their overall purpose. Such people are deviant in giving up their goal of financial success, although
they may be viewed as "good citizens" because of their rigid adherence to the rules.
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retreatism - the rejection of both the goals and the norms of one's culture., Retreatists are society's
dropouts. This includes some alcoholics and drug addicts, as well as some of the street people
common to Cities.
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rebellion. Rebels, however, are advocating radical alternatives to the existing social order,
proposing new, disapproved values and norms. Some seek to do this through political revolution,
while others promote an unconventional religious group.
SOCIOLOGICAL EXPLANATION: SYMBOLIC-INTERACTION ANALYSIS
Labeling Theory
The central contribution of symbolic-interaction analysis is labeling theory, the assertion that deviance and
conformity result from the response of others. Labeling theory stresses the relativity of deviance, meaning
that behavior understood in one situation may be defined differently in another. Howard S. Berker therefore
claims that deviance is nothing more than "behavior that people so label" (1966:9)
Primary and Secondary Deviance
Edwin Lemert (1951, 1972) explains that being labeled as deviant can change a person's subsequent behavior
Lemert calls activity that is initially defined as deviant primary deviance. A person who accepts this label
may then engage in secondary deviance, behavior caused by the person's incorporating the deviant label
'into self-concept and social identity. .Initial labeling, then can encourage the person to fulfill, for better or
worse, the expectations of -others.
Stigma
The development of secondary deviance marks the start of what Erving Goffman (1963) called a deviant
career. This occurs as a consequence of acquiring a stigma, a powerful negative social label that radically
changes a person's social identity and self-concept.
Retrospective Labeling
Once a stigma is acquired, a person may be subject to retrospective labeling. the interpretation of someone's
past consistent with present deviance (Scheff, 1984). For example, the shooting of Beatle John Lennon by
Mark David Chapman in 1980 selectively highlighted Chapman's running away from home on several
occasions, his inability to hold a job, use of drugs, and compulsion to emulate Lennon.