Download The Master List of Sociology Terms

Master List of Sociology Terms
Fall Semester 2012
Silverman
Unit ONE: Sociological Foundations & Methods
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Sociology – the systematic study of human society and social behaviors
Social phenomena – an observable fact or event that involves human society
Sociological perspective – a systematic method of viewing the behavior of groups
Sociological imagination – the ability to see connections between the larger world and our personal lives
Social psychology – the study of the way in which an individual’s behavior and personality are impacted by the social
environment
Macro-sociology – an approach to the study of sociology that emphasizes the analysis of social systems and populations
on a large scale, at the level of social structure
Micro-sociology – an approach to the study of sociology that emphasizes the nature of everyday human social interactions
on a small scale
Social Darwinism – a theoretical perspective in which societies evolve toward stability and perfection through survival-ofthe-fittest
Bourgeoisie – owners of the means of production in a capitalist society (i.e. middle class, management)
Proletariat – workers in a capitalist society; sell labor for wages
Function – the consequence that an element of society produces for the maintenance of its social system (i.e. religion as a
means of maintaining social order)
Verstehen – an empathetic understanding of the meaning that others attach to their actions, as discussed by Max Weber
Functionalist perspective – a theoretical perspective that views society as a set of interrelated parts that work together to
produce a stable social system
Dysfunction – the negative consequence that an element has for the stability of its social system; creates disruption, not
stability (i.e. crime)
Manifest function – the intended and recognized consequence of some element of society
Latent function – the unintended and unrecognized consequence of some element of society
Conflict perspective – a theoretical perspective that focuses on those forces in society that promote competition and
change
Interactionist perspective – a theoretical perspective that focuses on how individuals interact with one another in society
Empirical research – research that relies on the use of experience, observation and experimentation to collect data
Independent variable – a variable that causes a change in another variable
Dependent variable – a variable that is changed by an independent variable
Sample – a group of people who are selected from a given population to participate in a scientific study
Motivation – Influences that account for initiation, direction, intensity & persistence of behavior
Social Psychology – the study of the interaction between people, groups and social structures
Social Cognition – the ways in which people store, remember & use information about other individuals in the social
world
Attitude – an overall evaluation of your social world; lasting patterns of beliefs & opinions that predispose one’s reactions
to objects, people & events
Persuasion – outside efforts to change one’s attitude
Stereotype – fixed & overly-simplistic generalizations in regards to the traits, behaviors & attitudes of a particular group
of people
Prejudice – negative attitude in regards to members of a certain group
Attribution – inferences generated to explain the reasons for events, the behavior of others and the behavior of oneself
Conformity – a change in beliefs or actions that results in adherence to group norms
Compliance – a change in behavior prompted by a direct request rather than social norms; obedience
Unit TWO: Culture & Social Structure
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Culture – all the shared products of a particular human group; include both physical objects & the beliefs, values and
behaviors shared by the group
Material culture – physical objects created by human groups; sociologists and anthropologists use the term artifacts to refer
to the physical objects of material culture
Non-material culture – abstract human creations, such as language, ideas, beliefs, rules, skills, family patterns, work
practices, and political & economic systems
Society – a group of interdependent people who have organized in such a way as to share common culture and feelings of
unity
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Language – the organization of written or spoken symbols into a standardized system
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis – the idea that differences in language shape the way its speakers view reality
Values – shared beliefs about what is good or bad, right or wrong, desirable or undesirable
Norms – shared rules of conduct that dictate how people should act in certain situations; expectations for behavior
Folkways – norms that describe socially acceptable behavior, without having great moral significance attached to them
(i.e. cover your mouth when you yawn)
Mores – norms that have great moral significance attached to them (i.e. do not rob a bank)
Real culture – the values and standards of behavior that people actually follow
Ideal culture – the values and standards of behavior that people profess to hold
Cultural universals – common features that are found in all human cultures (i.e. dancing, cooking, gift-giving…)
Ethnocentrism – the tendency to view one’s own culture and group as superior to others
Culture relativism – the belief that cultures should be judged by their own standards rather than by applying the
standards of another culture
Folk culture – traditionally practiced by a small, homogeneous, rural group living in relative isolation
Pop culture – found in a large, heterogeneous society that shares certain habits despite differences in personal
characteristics.
Counterculture – a group that rejects the values, norms and practices of the larger society and replaces them with a new
set of cultural patterns
Subculture – a group with its own unique values, norms and behaviors that exists within a larger culture
Culture shock – the disorientation that people feel when they encounter cultures radically different from their own
Globalization – a process by which regional economies, societies and cultures have become integrated through a global
network of communication, transportation and trade
Social structure – the network of interrelated statuses and roles that guide human interaction
Status – socially defined position within a group or society
Role – the behavior expected of someone occupying a particular status
Ascribed status – a status assigned according to the standards that are beyond a person’s control (i.e. age, sex, family
heritage, race, etc.)
Achieved status – a status acquired by an individual on the basis of some special skill, knowledge or ability
Social institution – a system of statuses, roles, values and norms that is organized to satisfy one or more of the basic needs
of society (i.e. education)
Group – a set of two or more people who interact on the basis of shared expectations and who possess some degree of
common identity
Preindustrial society – a type of society in which food production – carried out through the use of human and animal labor
– is the main economic activity
Hunting & gathering society – a type of society characterized by the daily collection of wild plants and the hunting of
wild animals
Pastoral society – a type of society characterized by a reliance on domesticated herd animals as the main form of
subsistence
Horticultural society – a type of society characterized by a reliance on vegetables grown in garden plots as the main form
of subsistence
Agricultural society – a type of society characterized by the use of draft animals and plows in the tilling of friends
Industrial society – a type of society in which the mechanized production of goods is the main economic activity
Urbanization – the concentration of population in cities
Postindustrial society – a type of society in which economic activity centers on the production of information and the
provision of services
Mechanic solidarity – close-knit social relationships, common in preindustrial societies, that result when a small group of
people share the same values and perform the same tasks
Organic solidarity – impersonal social relationships, common in industrial societies, that arise with increased job
specialization
Gemeinschaft – societies in which most members know one another, relationships are close, and activities center on the
family and the community
Gesellschaft – societies in which social relationships are based on need rather than emotion, relationships are impersonal
and temporary, and individual goals are more important than group goals
Formal group – a group in which the structure, goals and activities of the group of clearly defined
Informal group – a group in which there is no official structure or established rules of conflict
Primary group – a small group of people who interact over a relatively long period of time on a direct and personal basis
Secondary group – a group in which interaction is impersonal and temporary in nature
In-group – a group that an individual belong to and identifies with
Out-group – any group that an individual does not belong to, nor identify with
Instrumental leaders – leaders who are task-oriented
Expressive leaders – leaders who are emotion-oriented
Unit THREE: Socialization & Social Control
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Personality – the sum total of behaviors, attitudes, beliefs and values that are characteristic of an individual
Sociobiology – the systematic study of the biological basis of all social behavior
Id – Sigmund Freud's term for the personality component that includes all of the individual's basic biological needs that
demand immediate gratification
Ego – according to Sigmund Freud, the rational, reality-oriented component of personality that imposes restrictions on the
innate pleasure-seeking drives of the id
Superego – according to Sigmund Freud, the part of the personality that represents the conscience, formed in early life by
internalization o f the standards of parents and other models of behavior
Sensory motor stage – in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, a period between birth and age two during which a
child relies on sensory impressions. During this stage children learn through assimilation and accommodation
Preoperational stage – in Piaget's stages of cognitive development, a period between ages two and six during which a child
learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate
information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people
Concrete operational stage – in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, a period between ages seven and adolescence
during which a child begins to understand concrete logic
Formal operational stage – in Piaget’s stages of cognitive development, a period during which individuals develop an
abstract view of the world
Socialization – the interactive process through which people learn the basic skills, values, beliefs and behavioral patterns
of society
Self – one’s conscious awareness of possessing a distinct identity that separates you and your environment from other
members of society
Looking-glass self – refers to the interactive process by which we develop an image of ourselves based on how we imagine
we appear to others
Role-taking – a theory of socialization in which individuals take on or pretend to take on the roles of others
Peer group – primary group composed of individuals of roughly equal age and social characteristics
Mass media – newspapers, magazines, books, television, radio, films and other forms of communication that reach large
audiences without personal contact between the individuals sending the information and those receiving it
Total institution – a setting in which people are isolated from the rest of society for a set period of time and subjected to
the control of authority
Resocialization – a break with past experiences and the learning of new values and norms
Sanction – rewards or punishments used to enforce conformity to norms
Informal sanction – spontaneous expression of approval or disapproval given by an individual or individuals
Formal sanction – reward or punishment that is given by a formal organization or regulatory body, such as the
government, the police, a corporation or a school
Social control – the enforcement of norms through either internalization or sanctions
Deviance – behavior that violates significant social norms
Stigma – a mark of social disgrace that sets a deviant apart from the rest of society
Strain theory – theory of deviant behavior that views deviance as the natural outgrowth of the values, norms and structure
of society
Control theory – theory of deviant behavior in which deviance is seen as a natural occurrence and conformity is seen as the
result of social control
Cultural transmission theory – theory that views deviance as a learned behavior transmitted through interaction with
others
Differential association – proportion of associations a person has with deviant versus non-deviant individuals
Techniques of neutralization – the suspending of moral beliefs to commit deviant acts
Labeling theory – theory that focuses on how individuals come to be labeled as deviant
Primary deviance – nonconformity undetected by authority in which the individuals who commit deviant acts do not
consider themselves to be deviant, and neither does society
Secondary deviance –nonconformity that results in the individuals who commit acts of secondary deviance being labeled
as deviant and accepting that label to be true
White collar crime – crime that is committed by an individual or individuals of high social status in the course of their
professional lives
Hate crime – a crime, usually violent, motivated by prejudice or intolerance toward a member of a gender, racial, religious
or social group
Unit FOUR: Social Stratification
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Social stratification – the ranking of individuals based on unequal access to scare resources and social rewards
Social inequality – the unequal sharing of social rewards and resources
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Exogamy – marriage outside of one’s own social category
Endogamy – marriage within one’s own social category
Caste system – system in which scarce resources and rewards are distributed on the basis of ascribed statuses
Class system – system in which scarce resources and rewards are determined on the basis of achieved statuses
Socioeconomic status – a rating that combines social factors such as level of education, occupational prestige and place of
residence with the economic factor of income in order to determine an individual’s relative position in the stratification
system
Social mobility – movement between or within social classes or strata
Horizontal mobility – type of social mobility in which the individual moves from one position in a social-class to another
position in that same social-class
Vertical mobility – movement between social classes or strata in which the individual moves from one social-class to
another
Intergenerational mobility – a form of vertical mobility in which status differs between generations in the same family
Poverty level – minimum annual income needed by a family to survive
Race – category of people who share inherited physical characteristics and who are perceived by others as being a distinct
group; social construction
Ethnicity – set of cultural characteristics that distinguishes one group from another group
Ethnic group – individuals who share a common cultural background and a common sense of identity
Minority group – category of people who share physical characteristics or cultural practices that result in the group being
denied equal treatment
Discrimination – denial of equal treatment to individuals based on their group membership
Prejudice – unsupported generalizations about a category of people
Stereotype – oversimplified, exaggerated or unfavorable generalization about a category of people
Self-fulfilling prophecy – a prediction that results in behavior that makes the prediction come true
Scape-goating – practice of placing blame for one’s troubles on an innocent individual or group
Cultural pluralism – a policy that allows each group within a society to keep its unique cultural identity
Assimilation – the blending of culturally distinct groups into a single group with a common culture and identity
Segregation – physical separation of a minority group from the dominant group
De jure segregation – law-based segregation
De facto segregation – segregation based on informal norms
Subjugation – maintaining control over a group through force
Gender – behavioral and psychological traits considered appropriate for men and women
Gender roles – specific behaviors and attitudes that a society establishes for men and women
Gender identity – the awareness of being masculine or feminine as those traits are defined by culture
Sex – biological/chromosomal traits that determine physical characteristics
Sexism – belief that one sex is by nature superior to the other
Ageism – the belief that one age category is by nature superior to another age category
Graying of America – the phenomenon of the growing percentage of elderly Americans as part as the total U.S. population
Baby-boom generation – collective term for the approximately 76 million children born in the United States from 1946
through 1 964
Dependency ratio – the number of workers for each person retrieving Social Security benefits
Unit FIVE: Social Institutions
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Nuclear family – family form that consists of one or both parents and their children
Extended family – family form that consists of three or more generations of a family sharing the same residence
Kinship – network of people who are related by marriage, birth or adoption
Monogamy – marriage of one man to one woman
Polygamy – marriage with multiple partners
Polygyny – form of polygamy in which a man is permitted to marry more than one woman at a time
Polyandry – for of polygamy in which a woman is permitted to marry more than one man at a time
Patriarchy – system in which men are dominant over women
Matriarchy –a family in which the mother holds most of the authority
Egalitarian – a family in which the mother and father share power
Homogamy – tendency for individuals to marry people who have social characteristics similar to their own
Heterogamy – tendency for individuals to marry people who have social characteristics different from their own
Sandwich generation – Americans caught between the needs of their children and aging parents
Schooling – instruction by specially trained teachers who follow officially recognized policies
Hidden curriculum – in schools, the transmission of cultural goals that are not openly acknowledged
Tracking – assignment of students to different types of educational programs
Charter schools – alternative schools which are funded by public money but are privately operated
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School choice – a broad movement to provide alternatives to public school systems to which parents can choose to send
their children
Religion – system of roles and norms organized around the sacred realm that binds people together in social groups
Ritual – an established pattern of behavior through which a group of believers experience the sacred
Animism – a belief system in which spirits are active in influencing human life
Shamanism – a belief system in which spirits communicate only with one person acknowledged as a specialist
Theism – belief in a god or gods
Monotheism – belief in one god
Polytheism – belief in many gods
Ethicalism – a belief system in which moral principles have a sacred quality
Ecclesia – a type of religious organization in which all people in the society are members by virtue of their birth
Denomination – well-established religious organization in which a substantial portion of the population are members
Sect – relatively small religious organization that typically has split off from a denomination because of doctrinal
differences
Cult – religious group founded on the revelations of a person believed to have special knowledge
Religiosity – importance of religion in a person’s life
Secular – non-religious
Media convergence – the idea that mass media are merging and are no longer separate entities
Knowledge-gap hypothesis – as new information enters society, wealthy and better educated members acquire it at a
faster rate than poor and less-educated people
Digital divide – the gap between those with access to new technologies and those without it
Social capital – social networks and the reciprocal norms associated with these networks that encourage people to do
things for each other
Spiral of silence – belief that as more people accept common opinions the people who disagree are less likely to voice their
views
Agenda setting – the argument that the media sets boundaries of public debate by deciding which issues will receive
coverage and which will not
Gatekeepers – media executives, editors or reporters who can open or close the “gate” on a particular news story