* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Download REVIEW FOR FINALS TT^TT (TEEHEE)x
Survey
Document related concepts
Proteolysis wikipedia , lookup
Adenosine triphosphate wikipedia , lookup
Human digestive system wikipedia , lookup
Electron transport chain wikipedia , lookup
Gaseous signaling molecules wikipedia , lookup
Citric acid cycle wikipedia , lookup
Basal metabolic rate wikipedia , lookup
Fatty acid metabolism wikipedia , lookup
Metalloprotein wikipedia , lookup
Microbial metabolism wikipedia , lookup
Light-dependent reactions wikipedia , lookup
Oxidative phosphorylation wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthetic reaction centre wikipedia , lookup
Photosynthesis wikipedia , lookup
Evolution of metal ions in biological systems wikipedia , lookup
Transcript
WASSUP FRESHMEN OMG FRESHIES stop it you’ll scare them...when did the freshman class become exotic animals NOTE TO EDITORS: IF YOU GUYS SCREW UP THE ORDER OR FORMAT AGAIN I’M NOT REDOING IT OK.---Sissi is fed up D:< galen is too sanbir is three brandon also what about haider, guys? I’m not sure what I should say if you’re still looking at this doc Time stamp: 3/28/2013 So many feels -gaylan 4/11/13 Da heck?? -Mr Lsomething 4/22/13 *mr.lin - galen 6/4/13 mr.ng* - brandon 6/12/13 HI GUYS! :DDDDD - Sissi 11/23/13 Back together again- Sanbir 1/26/14 Exam Information: (FINALS ARE OVER YAYAYAYAYAYAYAyayyayayayayyYAYAYAYAYAYAYYAYAYAYCOOK IESAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAYAY) *There should be a lot of diagrams on the test, so be sure to pay attention to the diagrams we have here! Notes from the Authors: * 你们好吗? 我恨死了我的 FINALSSSSSS D:< no me gustan mis examenes D:< * 哎呀 como están los estudiantes わたしわ something something blabla yo hablo blablalblablabla です. * i’m getting annoying now, right? (i don’t know korean or french) * “這個是什麼?”,你可能問. 這是化學的關係。jk, no es para la química sino la biología. 你懂我在講什么吗?hai hai hai hai hai hai hai :D * in this study guide, a word with a number next to it is the number of carbon molecules it has e.g. glucose(6) has 6-carbons * Hope we can make boring Bio less boring by putting the word “Pee, butt, and Poop” everywhere! :DD The Nature of Science (It’s all fiction, fiction I say!): Scientific Method- Using observations to make conclusions (assumptions vs inference) Assumption = hypothesis Data to produce a conclusion = inference Scientific Theory vs. Scientific Law- Theory cannot be proven but law can be proven Matter and Energy+Organization. BECAUSE WE GOTTA GET SOME STUFF IN THE WORLD Atomic Number and Mass: Matter- anything that takes up space and has mass Atoms-building block of matter Elements- any substance that cannot be broken down further into simpler substances Bonding (Which you should be able to identify) ● Covalent Bonds: Bonds in which electrons are shared between atoms. (Bond between two non-metals) ○ Polar Covalent Bonds: (Ex. H2O) Electrons in atoms are shared unequally and results in a slightly negatively charged atom and a slightly positively charged atom. ○ Nonpolar Covalent bonds: (Ex. CH4) A bond in which electrons are shared equally, and the molecules’ charges are neutral. ● Ionic Bonds: (Ex. NaCl) A bond in which an electron is transferred from one atom to another resulting in positively and negatively charged ions. In the case of sodium chloride, sodium has 1 electron while chlorine has 7. In ionic bonding, the electron from the sodium is forced to go to the chloride therefore balancing the number of electrons. ● Hydrogen Bonds: A temporary bond between the oxygens and hydrogens in water as a result of their slight polarity, this is primarily caused by polar covalent bonding Ions in Living Cells Ionization- The process of converting a nonionic compound into ions Water Ionization(water can self ionize): H2O--> (H+) Hydrogen Ion + (OH-) Negatively charged hydroxide ion ● The hydrogen ion (H+) then immediately binds with a water molecule to form ● The pH scale measures the hydrogen ions (H+). Buffers: ● Solutions used to keep the pH of another solution within a range of 1. (A biological buffer is sodium bicarbonate.) CELLS OOOOOOOOOOOO~ The Classification of Cells Binomial Nomenclature- the two-word name that defines an organism’s species e.g. homo sapiens The 5 Kingdom System: Animalia, Protista, Plantae, Fungi, Monera Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic: Prokaryotic Animal Cell vs Plant Cell: ● Cell walls Unicellular vs. Multicellular: ● multicellular is more complex Organelles of An Eukaryotic Cell Nucleus: the central part of an eukaryotic cell that contains hereditary material stored as DNA Membrane System: phospholipid bilayer Energy-producing organelles: mitochondria(cellular respiration) Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers in the cytoplasm that gives shape to a cell, holds and moves organelles, and is often involved in cell movement. (Think of it as the circulatory system of cells) Structure and Function of the cell membrane: Transport Across a Membrane: Passive and Active Transport ● Passive Transport - facilitated diffusion (ion channels) and diffusion ● Active Transport - uses ATP to produce a conformational change; forcing it against the concentration gradient ORGANIC COMPOUNDS; AKA STUFF THAT ARE SMALL AND WE USE TO DO OTHER STUFF :DD the things that is used to make the things, and thereby synthesizes things that destroy things (phew what a mouthful) that’s what she said xD -Justin(NOT GALEN) Biomacromolecules Carbohydrates- a polyhydroxylated aldehyde or ketone (yes that’s the definition she gave us in class) Functions of Carbohydrates: ● Immediate Energy Source ○ Mono- or disaccharides ● Short term storage of energy ○ plants - starch ○ animals - glycogen ■ Humans store about 10 hours of energy ■ muscles ■ liver Monosaccharides- like glucose and fructose(C6H12O6 this is glucose and fructose’s chemical formula) Disaccharide- combination of molecules consisting of carbon backbones Polysaccharides- starch, glycogen Lipids- Insoluble in water glycerol. Functions of Lipids ● LONG-term storage of energy (i remember this because ms. manwell said it like that) ● Membrane structure ● Waxy coats to prevent H2O loss (like the cuticle-thingy) ● Hormones ● Insulation (fluffyangry birds) ○ thermal insulation ○ electrical insulation ● Cushioning Fatty Acids- Made out of glycerol with fatty tails attached to them. These fatty tails are bonded using ester bonds. This forms a triglyceride because there are three carbon in the glycerol. Phospholipids- Like a fatty acids, except one of the carbons is bonded to a phosphate group instead of a chain Proteins- structural units in cells, can be used for structure, defense, enzymes, movement, transport, and signaling. It is made of an amine group, a carboxyl group, a carbon and a hydrogen, as well as a variable group, which can vary from 20 different choices. Amino Acids- monomers of proteins Peptide Bonds- the bonds formed between amino acids in proteins. These are formed by hydrolysis. Polypeptide- a long chain of amino acids. When the chain becomes long enough, folds begin to occur. Primary Structure- the basic form of a protein Secondary Structure- comes in the form of alpha helix or a beta sheet in folds Tertiary Structure- a spherical folding of a polypeptide Hydrophobicity- stays away from water, like lipid tails. It can affect how a protein folds. Quaternary Structure- multiple polypeptides combined together to create complex folds. Nucleic Acids- a macromolecule that dictates the processes of creating proteins. It consists of three things: (1) a phosphate group, (2) a 5-carbon sugar, or pentose (can be either ribose or deoxyribose) and (3) a nitrogenous base. These nitrogenous bases are: ● DNA- contains the sugar deoxyribose, DNA is practically the origin of everything your body does. ● RNA- a single-stranded copy or DNA. Contains Uracil instead of Thymine. Nucleotides- the building blocks of nucleic acids RNA ● ● ● mRNA(messenger) tRNA(transport) rRNA(ribosomal) DNA- the genetic makeup of a cell ● double helix made of two strands with alternating nucleotides ● adenine-thymine cytosine-guanine Genes Codons, Enzymes- proteins that help speed up reactions by binding substrates together to change their shape or break down molecules Catalysts- same thing, speeds up reactions, it itself is not changed in the process Active Site- where the substrates enter Substrate- a reactant that in taken into account during a enzyme’s reaction. Metabolism- the sum of all the chemical reactions Synthesis- creation (endergonic) Decomposition- DESTRUCTION (exergonic) Oxidation- LEO loss of electrons Reduction- GER gain of electrons ATP- Adenosine triphosphate (AKA the most common energy carrier in the body) ADP- Adenosine diphosphate (Also important in energy transfer/carrying) Diffusion - Alveoli - Cuticle - Stomata - Transpiration Concentration Gradient ENERGY TO GO VROOM VROOM VROOM (vroom)! First law of thermodynamics- energy cannot be destroyed nor created only changed. Law of conservation of energy; Also known as law of conservation of matter. Second law of thermodynamics- Unless energy is applied to an isolated system, the amount of entropy in an isolated system will increase over time See the definition of Entropy below. Chemical energy- Energy stored in the bonds of high energy substances, like ATP- Adenosine Triphosphate Free energy- Released as heat energy from reactions Autotrophs - Produce their own energy-- Plants Photosynthesis - process of autotrophs to convert water and carbon dioxide to glucose and oxygen Photoautotrophs- Organisms that use le sunnn to make energy (plants) Chemosynthesis- process by deep-sea bacterium that use chemicals to create food( Food web- Diagrams used to show the transfer of energy from one organism to another by where they get their energy from. Producer- produces own food Consumer- eats other organisms for energy Decomposer- breaks down dead organisms for energy (saprophytes) Abiotic- nonliving factors Biotic- living factors Ecosystem- biotic+abiotic Habitats-where the organism lives Biosphere- the whole region of Earth that makes up environments where organisms live Entropy- A tendency for disorder (like the classroom analogy with Ms. Manwell having to keep the classroom orderly *AHEM lolBORINGGGGG~* energy has to be spent to maintain order. Decomposition- break down to recycle nutrients Oxidation-loss of electrons (remember Leoger) ATP-energy for most organisms stored in the bonds of Adenosine triphosphate, chosen because of high energy capacity in that phosphate group ADP-plus phosphate equals ATP ENZYMES AND STUFF TO MAKE OTHER STUFF WORK D:< Enzymes-speeds up reactions, special catalyst, not used up, generally a protein. Catalysts- speeds up reactions Active site-place where substrate binds Allosteric Site- the site where an inhibitor can bind to change the shape of an enzymes, thereby inhibiting it (one of 2 methods of inhibition, this one is allosteric inhibition the other is competitive inhibition) Substrate-the reactant that goes in the enzyme Synthesis-to create more complex molecules out of simpler ones Endergonic vs. Exergonic ● Exergonic- Exergonic reactions are those that release energy. During these reaction the reactant has higher free energy than the product. This is expressed by -G (negative Gibbs number). These reaction occurs spontaneously and their rate is usually increased by enzymes. ● Endergonic-Endergonic reactions are those that store energy. During these reactions the reactant has lower free energy than the product. This is expressed by +G (positive Gibbs number). They do not happen spontaneously and need supply of energy to occur. Course of a chemical reaction- See above exergonic and endergonic reactions. Induced-fit Model for enzyme activity- the model used to demonstrate the activity of an enzyme, involves the substrates, the enzyme itself, and the allosteric regulatory site. PHOTOSYNTHESIS; GETTING SOME SHUGAH (If you know what I’m saying~~ oppa g-- AKA BORINGEST SUBJECT EVER ;c in the twilight (zone) Photoautotrophs- Organisms that make their own food from the sun’s energy (PLANTS~) Chemoautotrophs- Organisms that uses chemicals to create their own food (i.e. bacteria that live in hotsprings) Chloroplasts- Special organelles of plant cells-- they capture Pigments- the substance that give plants their color Thylakoids- sacs where the light reactions take place Grana - stacks of thylakoids Stroma- the “cytoplasm” of the chloroplast Chlorophyll- Green pigment in plants (absorbs only red and blue pigments, reflects green) Photosystems I and II- the two photosystems that are part of the light reactions of photosynthesis NADP+ - low-energy electron carrier for the ATP synthase to work NADPH - high-energy electron carrier for ATP synthase to work And now time for my horrible drawing...Are you ready? (Which isn’t that horrible :P) Calvin cycle - the process of the light-independent reactions that creates glucose. Rubisco- the carbon-fixing enzyme that fixes carbon dioxide onto rubp RuBP- (Ribulose Bisphosphate) Carbon fixation- the process where carbon dioxide is fixed to rubp PGA- Phosphoglyceric acid: A three carbon molecule produced after the carbon fixation step in the Calvin Cycle (AKA C3 Cycle) in photosynthesis. PGAL-phosphoglyceraldehyde: a chemical compound that serves as an intermediate in metabolic pathways. It is converted from PGA using energy from ATP and NADPH. PGAL can be used to synthesize glucose. Rate Photoinhibition- light-induced reduction in the photosynthetic capacity of a plant, damage to the light-gathering process in photosynthesis; occurs when a chloroplast has absorbed too much light energy Photorespiration- the process by which the plant takes in oxygen and releases carbon dioxide. Unlike cellular respiration, no ATP is produced and carbon as well as nitrogen in the form of ammonia is lost. It also prevents the C3 pathway from synthesizing glucose. Bundle sheath cells Epidermis- The skin or the outer layer of the cell Cuticle- The waxy outer coating of the plants. (Oooo, SHINYYY~) Mesophyll- a layer in the leaf Vascular bundles- A strand of vascular tissues (both xylem and phloem) in a stem or leaf. Accessory pigments Carotenoids: a group of more than 700 fat-soluble nutrients that give plants their color and are important for health. Each help a certain part of the body. Photosystems(II comes before I btw)- the pigments used in the lightdependent reactions Reaction center- in the photosystem, concentrates all of the energy collected by the rest of the photosystem. Electron transport chain (ETC) Chemiosmosis- C4 pathway- alternative pathway for plants in dry weather CAM pathway CELLULAR RESPIRATION- BORING SUBJECT NUMBER 2 :c pant pant pant Usain Bolt runs a 9.53sec 100m using anaerobic respiration (oooo so nerdy) Cellular respiration- process of making energy in the bonds of ATP from oxygen Metabolism- the combination of all of the reactions Glycolysis- the process in which glucose(6) is broken down into 2 pyruvate(3 each) molecules Aerobic respiration- respiration using oxygen Anaerobic respiration- when oxygen is not present, the cell uses this Fermentation- Anaerobic respiration where pyruvates are split to get ATP! ok sissi gosh ● Alcoholic fermentation- where some yeast takes the pyruvate and converts it into alcohol and carbon dioxide. ● Lactic-acid fermentation- when pyruvate is fermented into lactic acid, buildup occurs NAD+ - the form of NADP without energy Electron transport system- part of the mass-production of ATP, where electrons are transported across a membranes to pump hydrogen ions across into the intermembrane compartment Intermembrane area- between outer membrane and inner membrane, part of the electron transport system Chemiosmosis- where hydrogen ions move down their concentration gradient to create ATP through the protein ATP synthase(like a water wheel) Cristae- Cristae (singular crista) are the internal compartments of a mitochondrion. They are studded with proteins, including ATP synthase and a variety of cytochromes. The maximum surface for chemical reactions to occur is within the mitochondria. This allows cellular respiration (aerobic respiration since the mitochondrion requires oxygen) to occur. Chemiosmosis also occurs here. ATP- ENERGY YO!!! (Adenosine Triphosphate BROS.) Coenzyme A- this plus pyruvate is the key ingredient in starting the krebs cycle Oxidation - leoger says oxidation is loss of electrons (don’t listen to me, listen to LEOGER) AKA LEGO DUDE! :DD Acetyl CoA = pyruvate + coenzyme a Reduction- Gain of Electrons, Reduction...GERRRRRRRRRR Pyruvate/pyruvic acid Krebs Cycle- the process in which electron carriers gradually take electrons from carbohydrates. Cytochrome Mitochondria- place where cellular respiration takes place Lactate/lactic acid Matrix of mitochondria- this is where the krebs cycle takes place to generate electrons for electron carriers. Facultative aerobes Obligate anaerobes Obligate aerobes Hydrolysis-just add H2O (serve well, and enjoy lol) FOOD; MY FAVORITE SUBJECT~ (Digestion) it’s like a grinder Food Vacuole- Used in single celled organisms to stored food and digest food with the help of enzymes Digestion- breakdown of food in digestive tract Intracellular digestion- digestion in the cell Extracellular digestion- digestion occurring outside a cell Epiglottis.- flap that prevents food going into the trachea Peristalsis- muscular movement of esophagus, and small intestine to move and digest food Villi- tiny hairy things in small intestine that absorb the stuff Capillaries.- single-cell thick walls where interstitial fluid diffuses Lysosomes- contains digestive enzymes for digestion Gastrovascular cavity- cnidaria opening for digestion Cellulose- the hard stuff in plants/”fiber” Gizzard- grinds up food (found in worms, birds, you name it) Salivary glands- secretes salivary amylase for chemical digestion of carbohydrates (starch) Pharynx- the opening (oral cavity) Esophagus-pushes food down to the stomach from Pharynx by peristalsis (rhythmic movement of food going down throat) Liver- produces bile for fat emulsification Gallbladder- regulates bile output THE LARGE INTESTINE ● Ascending colon- it goes up... (Large intestine) ● Transverse colon- it goes across...(again Large intestine) ● Descending colon- it goes down...(yet again Large intestine) ● Sigmoid Colon- the little part of the YET AGAIN large intestine at the and, before the anus Stomach ● secretes HCl, mucus, pepsinogen ● CHYME- black “sturf” Pancreas- produces pancreatic juice that has le enzymes Small intestine ● has villi to absorb nutrients ● digests stuff with pancreatic juice ● peristalsis pushes the food through Rectum- THE POOP HOLE! :D Larynx- voicebox (Not part of digestion but it helps me sing~ :3 LALALALALALALALALALALA) Pyloric Sphincter- bottom of stomach that regulates how much semi-digested food goes to the small intestine. Gastrin- stimulates acid secretion Pepsin- for proteins Trypsin- for more proteins Lipase- for lipids Chyme- acidic solution after stomach digestion Bile- emulsifies salts Lacteal- vessel in the villi that gets the lipids Feces- LE POOP :D Secretin- stimulates bile output and bicarbonate production Cholecystokinin(CCK): stimulates bile production and pancreatic juice secretion Segmentation movements: How the food moves down the esophagus and from stomach to small intestine in small chunks. Colon- Also known as the large intestine, it is where reabsorption of water and vitamin creation takes place Homeostasis- the processes in which the body maintains stable internal conditions (i.e. temp,pH,etc.) Metabolism- combination of reactions EXCRETORY SYSTEM/GETCHO BODY’S GARBAGE OUT! :D saca la basura Kidney- Shaped like a kidney bean! :D This organ filters blood~ Nephrons- the functional unit of the kidneys-- It is where filtration and some reabsorption takes place. What part of the kidney is the nephron in? medulla or something? Filtration (of the nephron)- The transport of materials and dissolved substances from the glomerular capillaries into the Bowman’s capsule. Plasma proteins and blood cells are too big to pass through the walls of the Bowman’s capsule, so they are not filtered out. The substances that are filtered out are vitamins, water, salts, urea, amino acids, toxins, bicarbonate, and glucose. This is because these substances are small enough to be filtered out. Reabsorption( of the nephron)- Also known as tubular reabsorption, it is where important substances are reabsorbed back into the body. 1. Most of these substances are reabsorbed in the proximal tubule. (Glucose, Vitamins, Amino Acids) 2. The descending loop of Henle (Going downnnn [temperpedic ergo]) is where most water is reabsorbed since it is highly permeable to water, but not to other substances. So at the end, the solution is highly concentrated in urea and salts 3. The ascending loop of Henle (Going Up^) is impermeable to water, so salts move down the concentration gradient by diffusing into the surrounding space (Thin). The thick portion: Salt is actively transported out of the tubule. 4. The Distal Tubule is where salt is still actively transported out, and as a result more water moves out of the filtrate by osmosis. Secretion (of the nephron)- In the Distal Tubule, hydrogen ions, drugs and toxins, ammonia, and uric acid enters the tubule by active transport. Urinary system- The system in which liquid wastes and liquid-soluble wastes are expelled from the body. Urine- Your pee xD contains nitrogenous wastes like uric acid and urea Ureter- Muscular tubes that carries pee from kidney to the bladder Urinary bladder- A muscular storage place for urine to collect before being excreted. It can hold about 1 pint of liquid when it’s moderately full. Urethra- A small muscular tube that drains urine from the urinary bladder out of the body. In males it is about 8 inches long-- in females it is about 1.5 inches long. Feedback regulation- The process in which ADH controls how much liquid is absorbed in the collecting duct. See Antidiuretic hormone below :DD Aldosterone-a steroid hormone C21H28O5 of the adrenal cortex that functions in the regulation of the salt and water balance of the body. Antidiuretic hormone(ADH)- A hormone that controls how much water is reabsorbed in the collecting duct. This in turn regulates the concentration of the urine. In hot summer days the ADH will allow the collecting duct to be extremely permeable to water; therefore, most of the water will be reabsorbed. It is secreted by the pituitary gland and tries to maintain homeostasis. Ammonia- Part of the cycle for getting rid of nitrogen wastes;end product of digested amino acids, very toxic Renal vein- Carries blood away from the kidneys after it has been filtered and returns it to circulatory system via the vena cava. Renal artery- Branched off from the aorta, these bring blood with wastes, nutrients, and gases to be filtered in the kidneys. Uric acid- product of the metabolic breakdown of purine nucleotides Renin- An enzyme released by the kidneys to regulate blood pressure and breaks down proteins. Angiotensin- A hormone that raises blood pressure. Just remember if you’re tense, your blood pressure risess. :D So chillax. Arterioles- the smaller version of an artery, like the ipad mini where the ipad is the artery... *LOL I LOVE THIS ANALOGY.* CIRCULATORY SYSTEM/ HIGHWAY OF YOUR BODY~ this way or my way... (and vice versa) Arthropods- aka lobsters, spiders, and creepy thingys Open circulatory system- the circulatory system in which organs are bathed in blood. This is not efficient because pressure is not maintained. Present in insects (GRASSHOOPPAHS~) Hemocoel: The open space in open circulatory systems in which blood/hemolymph circulates. Hemolymph: BLOOD OF THE INSECTS~ (Actually a liquid that functions like blood in insects and invertebrates) Closed circulatory system- in humans, blood is continually contained in vessels, maintaining pressure, note that earthworms have this Atria- the two top thingys of the heart Ventricles- the two bottom thingys of the heart,contracts squeezing blood out Arteries- carries oxygenated blood away from the heart Capillaries- very thin vessels where substances can diffuse and connects arteries and veins(one cell at a time can go through) Veins- carries deoxygenated blood to the heart Describing the cycle of the <3: 1. Blood first enters the right atrium through the superior vena cava. 2. The tricuspid valves let the blood into the right ventricle. 3. This blood is then pumped past the semilunar valves into the pulmonary artery. This blood receives oxygen from the lungs and proceeds to the pulmonary vein, which travels back to the heart. 4. The blood goes from the left atrium through the bicuspid valves to the left ventricle into the semilunar valves to the aorta, where the blood is pumped to the whole body. The walls of the left chamber are more muscular because it must pump blood to the whole body. Cardiac cycle- usually complete in a second, it is the whole process of the beating of the heart (I feel my heart beat to the beat of the drum~~~) Blood pressure Erythrocytes/Red blood cells- Circular cells without nuclei that transport oxygen and carbon dioxide with the help of hemoglobin-- a binding agent. Hemoglobin- the iron-containing substance that binds to oxygen to carry it Leukocytes/White blood cells- fights off bacteriophages or other harmful substances Plasma- fluid portion of blood, carries nutrients. 90% H2O, 10% dissolved elements like salts, wastes, nutrients. Lymphatic system- series of vessels that takes interstitial fluid and returns excess water to the body Coagulate- Otherwise known as blood clotting. Platelets- fragments of megakaryocytes, help in blood clotting Fibrin- the stuff that your scab is made of THE IMMUNE SYSTEM - LE ARMY OF YOUR BODY, SO IT’S A FPS GAME ALL OVER AGAIN! (watch the crashcourse vid on this, it’s helpful.) Antigen - virus or foreign substance in the body Antibody- the cells responsible for getting rid of antibodies teachers.sduhsd.net/wslijk/documents/ImmuneVocab.ppt ^ that thing is a powerpoint Primary immune system: ● skin ● mucus membrane Secondary immune response: ● phagocytes and natural killer cells(example T-Cells) ● inflammation ● fever Specific Immune Response: ● cell-mediated ● humoral RESPIRATORY SYSTEM- THE REAL PANT PANT PACER TESTCountercurrent Exchange -Tracheae -Spiracles -Alveoli -Cuticle -Stomata- opening on the anterior of the leaf that controls what goes in and out of the cell (oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water) -Guard Cells- Basically the “gates” of the stomata. They are located on the outside of the stomata. They open up when guard cells take up water and swell up, creating a gap between each other. They close when they shrivel and shrink. The entry of water is controlled by the pumping of potassium into the guard cells. -Transpiration- the loss of water vapor from plants(something similar to sweating). This creates the force needed for water movement and drawing water up from the roots. Water molecules move upward throughout the whole plant when water molecules leaving the xylem attach to other molecules. This continues to the roots and finally causes soil water to move through the endodermal cells into the vascular cylinder by osmosis. Basically an example of cohesion-tension theory (from the textbook btw)