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Macromolecules -Large molecules formed by joining many subunits together with covalent bonds -Also known as “polymers” Monomer -A building block of a polymer Condensation Synthesis or Dehydration Synthesis -The chemical reaction that joins monomers into polymers -Covalent bonds are formed by the removal of a water molecule between the monomers -Process is facilitated by enzymes (proteins that speed up reactions) Hydrolysis -Reverse of dehydration synthesis -Hydro: water -Lysis: to split -Breaks polymers into monomers by adding water Molecules and Atoms from the environment are necessary to build macromolecules -Carbon moves from the environment to organisms where it is used to build carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, or nucleic acid -Nitrogen moves from the environment to organisms where it is used to build proteins and nucleic acids -Phosphorus is also obtained from the environment to be used in building nucleic acids and lipids Four Main Types of Macromolecules -Carbohydrates (C,H,O) -Lipids (C,H,O,P) -Proteins (C,H,N) -Nucleic Acids (C,H,N,P) Carbohydrates -Used for fuel, building materials, and receptors (name tags) -Made of C,H,O -OSE: word ending common for many carbohydrates Types -Monosaccharide (one sugar)(Glucose) -Polysaccharides (Many sugar) (Linked by covalent bonds with dehydration synthesis) Monosaccharide -Mono: single -Saccharide: sugar -Simple sugar Polysaccharide -Large polymer sugars formed by joining many monosaccharides with covalent bonds formed thru dehydration synthesis -Used for storage or structure Ex: -Starch-> Plant, storage of energy -Cellulose-> Plants, structure -Glycogen-> Animals, storage of energy -Chitin-> Animals (fungus), structure Polysaccharide- Starch -Made of linkages of (covalent) glucose monomers that makes the molecule form a helix spiral -Used as fuel storage in plants Polysaccharide- Cellulose -Made of linkages of glucose that makes the molecule form a straight line -Used for structure in plant cell walls -Most organisms can digest starch but very few can digest cellulose because of the different ways the glucose monomers are linked together Polysaccharide- Glycogen -“Animal starch” but is not starch, same function -Similar to starch, but has more branches in its structure -Found in the liver and muscle cells where it is stored for energy Lipids -Diverse hydrophobic (non polar) molecules -Made of C,H,O -Do Not form polymers Ex: -Fats, Oils, Phospholipids, Steroids Fats and Oils -Fats: solid at room temperature -Oil: liquid at room temperature -Made of two kinds of smaller molecules ---Fatty Acids (three) ---Glycerol (one) Saturated Fats vs. Unsaturated Fats -Saturated: No double bonds (straight) (solid) -Unsaturated: One or more double bonds, can accept more hydrogen (liquid) -Double bonds cause “kinks” in the molecules shape which will determine if it is liquid or solid at room temperature -The double bond pushes the molecules apart, lowering the density, the more double bonds, the more liquid the molecule Fats -Differ in which fatty acids are used -Used for energy storage, cushions for organs, insulation Phospholipids -Similar to fats, but have only two fatty acids -Phospholipids have a hydrophobic tail, but a hydrophilic head -Self-assembles into bilayers, an important parts of cell membranes Steroids -Lipids with four fused rings -Differ in the functional groups attached to the rings Ex: -Cholesterol -Sex Hormones Proteins -The molecular tools of the cell -Made of C,H,O,N and sometimes S Uses: -Structure -Enzymes -Antibodies -Transport -Movement -Receptors -Hormones Parts of Proteins -Polypeptide chains of amino acids are linked by peptide bonds (covalent bonds) -Amino Acids: --All have a Carbon with four attachments: ---COOH (acid) ---NH 2 (amine) ---H ---R group -Polypeptide Chains: formed by dehydration synthesis between the carboxyl group of one AA and the amino group of the second AA R Groups -20 different kinds: Non polar (9AA), Polar (6AA), Electrically Charged, Acidic (2AA), Basic (3AA) -The properties of the R group determine the properties of the protein which determine function Levels of Protein Structure -Organizing the polypeptide into its 3-D functional shape 1.Primary 2.Secondary 3.Tertiary 4.Quaternary Primary -Determines the shape -Sequence of amino acids in the polypeptide chain -Many different sequences are possible with 20 AAs -Everything depends on this to fold right Secondary -3-D structure formed by hydrogen bonding between parts of the peptide backbone -Two main secondary structures: --Alpha Felix (spiral) --Beta Pleated sheet Tertiary -Bonding between the R groups Ex: -Hydrophobic interactions -Ionic Bonding -Disulfide Bridges (covalent bond) Quaternary -When two or more polypeptides unite to form a functional protein Ex: Hemoglobin Denaturing Of A Protein -Events that cause a protein to lose structure (and function) Ex: -pH shifts -High salt concentrations -Heat Nucleic Acids -Informational polymers -Made of C,H,O,N, and P -No general formula Ex: DNA and RNA -Polymers of nucleotides -Nucleotides have three parts: --Nitrogenous base --Pentose (5 carbon) sugar --Phosphate DNA -Deoxyribonucleic Acid -Makes up Genes -Genetic information for life -Structure: --Deoxyribose sugar --Bases include: A,T,C,G --Double-stranded RNA -Ribonucleic Acid -Structure and protein synthesis -Genetic information for a few viruses only -Structure: --Ribose sugar --Bases include: A,U,C,G --Single-Stranded