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Nuclear Chemistry
An Introduction
by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.
Traditional chemical reactions occur as a result of the interaction between valence
electrons around an atom's nucleus. In 1896, Henri Becquerel expanded the field of
chemistry to include nuclear changes when he discovered that uranium emitted
radiation. Soon after Becquerel's discovery, Marie Sklodowska Curie began studying
radioactivity and completed much of the pioneering work on nuclear changes. Curie
found that radiation was proportional to the amount of radioactive element present, and
she proposed that radiation was a property of atoms (as opposed to a chemical property
of a compound). Marie Curie was the first woman to win a Nobel Prize and the first
person to win two (the first, shared with her husband Pierre and Becquerel for
discovering radioactivity; the second for discovering the radioactive elements radium
and polonium).
Radiation and Nuclear Reactions
In 1902, Frederick Soddy proposed the theory that "radioactivity is the result of a
natural change of an isotope of one element into an isotope of a different element."
Nuclear reactions involve changes in particles in an atom's nucleus and thus cause a
change in the atom itself. All elements heavier than bismuth (Bi) (and some lighter)
exhibit natural radioactivity and thus can "decay" into lighter elements. Unlike normal
chemical reactions that form molecules, nuclear reactions result in the transmutation of
one element into a different isotope or a different element altogether (remember that
the number of protons in an atom defines the element, so a change in protons results in
a change in the atom). There are three common types of radiation and nuclear changes:
1. Alpha Radiation (α) is the emission of an alpha particle from an atom's
nucleus. An α particle contains two protons and two neutrons (and is similar to a
He nucleus:
). When an atom emits an  particle, the atom's atomic mass
will decrease by four units (because two protons and two neutrons are lost) and
the atomic number (z) will decrease by two units. The element is said to
"transmute" into another element that is two z units smaller. An example of an 
transmutation takes place when uranium decays into the element thorium (Th)
by emitting an alpha particle, as depicted in the following equation:
238
U
92
4
234
He+ 90 Th
2
1
2. (Note: in nuclear chemistry, element symbols are traditionally preceded by their
atomic weight (upper left) and atomic number (lower left).
3. Beta Radiation () is the transmutation of a neutron into a proton and a
electron (followed by the emission of the electron from the atom's nucleus: ).
When an atom emits a β particle, the atom's mass will not change (since there is
no change in the total number of nuclear particles), however the atomic number
will increase by one (because the neutron transmutated into an additional
proton). An example of this is the decay of the isotope of carbon named carbon14 into the element nitrogen:
14
C
6
0
14
e+ N
-1 7
4. Gamma Radiation () involves the emission of electromagnetic energy
(similar to light energy) from an atom's nucleus. No particles are emitted during
gamma radiation, and thus gamma radiation does not itself cause the
transmutation of atoms, however γ radiation is often emitted during, and
simultaneous to, α or β radioactive decay. X-rays, emitted during the beta decay
of cobalt-60, are a common example of gamma radiation.
Half-Life
Radioactive decay proceeds according to a principal called the half-life. The half-life
(T½) is the amount of time necessary for one-half of the radioactive material to decay.
For example, the radioactive element bismuth (210Bi) can undergo alpha decay to form
the element thallium (206Th) with a reaction half-life equal to five days. If we begin an
experiment starting with 100 g of bismuth in a sealed lead container, after five days we
will have 50 g of bismuth and 50 g of thallium in the jar. After another five days (ten
from the starting point), one-half of the remaining bismuth will decay and we will be
left with 25 g of bismuth and 75 g of thallium in the jar. As illustrated, the reaction
proceeds in halfs, with half of whatever is left of the radioactive element decaying
every half-life period.
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Radioactive Decay of Bismuth-210 (T½ = 5 days)
The fraction of parent material that remains after radioactive decay can be calculated
using the equation:
Fraction remaining =
1
(where n = # half-lives elapsed)
2n
The amount of a radioactive material that remains after a given number of half-lives is
therefore:
Amount remaining = Original amount * Fraction remaining
The decay reaction and T½ of a substance are specific to the isotope of the element
undergoing radioactive decay. For example, Bi210 can undergo  decay to Tl206 with
a T½ of five days. Bi215, by comparison, undergoes  decay to Po215 with a T½ of 7.6
minutes, and Bi208 undergoes yet another mode of radioactive decay (called electron
capture) with a T½ of 368,000 years!
Stimulated Nuclear Reactions
While many elements undergo radioactive decay naturally, nuclear reactions can also
be stimulated artificially. Although these reactions also occur naturally, we are most
familiar with them as stimulated reactions. There are two such types of nuclear
reactions:
1. Nuclear fission: reactions in which an atom's nucleus splits into smaller parts,
releasing a large amount of energy in the process. Most commonly this is done by
"firing" a neutron at the nucleus of an atom. The energy of the neutron "bullet" causes
the target element to split into two (or more) elements that are lighter than the parent
atom.
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The Fission Reaction of Uranium-235
The Fission of U235
Concept simulation - Illustrates a nuclear fission reaction.
(Flash required)
During the fission of U235, three neutrons are released in addition to the two daughter
atoms. If these released neutrons collide with nearby U235 nuclei, they can stimulate
the fission of these atoms and start a self-sustaining nuclear chain reaction. This chain
reaction is the basis of nuclear power. As uranium atoms continue to split, a significant
amount of energy is released from the reaction. The heat released during this reaction is
harvested and used to generate electrical energy.
Two Types of Nuclear Chain Reactions
Concept simulation - Reenacts controlled and uncontrolled nuclear chain reactions.
(Flash required)
2. Nuclear fusion: reactions in which two or more elements "fuse" together to form
one larger element, releasing energy in the process. A good example is the fusion of
two "heavy" isotopes of hydrogen (deuterium: H2 and tritium: H3) into the element
helium.
Nuclear Fusion of Two Hydrogen
Isotopes
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Nuclear Fusion
Concept simulation - Reenacts the fusion of deuterium and tritium inside of a tokamak reactor.
(Flash required)
Fusion reactions release tremendous amounts of energy and are commonly referred to
as thermonuclear reactions. Although many people think of the sun as a large fireball,
the sun (and all stars) are actually enormous fusion reactors. Stars are primarily
gigantic balls of hydrogen gas under tremendous pressure due to gravitational forces.
Hydrogen molecules are fused into helium and heavier elements inside of stars,
releasing energy that we receive as light and heat.
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