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Grammar! Eleven Basic Concepts
It is easy to get lost in the grammar jungle, so to speak. A big part of this is that there are a multitude of ways to describe
the same thing, and a bigger reason is that language is incredibly fluid and incredibly complex. In short, grammar ain’t easy. Take
this sentence: “On the counter near the stove in a silvery pan was a deep-dish berry cobbler.” It begins with a prepositional phrase,
On the counter. This phrase leads to two more prepositional phrases, near the stove, and in a silvery pan. These three phrases sit in
the place that generally contains the subject. The subject is cobbler. This sentence has an inverted subject, that is, the subject comes
after the verb. The verb is was. This verb can be labelled as a simple predicate and as a copula, or even as a linking verb. The full
predicate is On the counter near the stove in a silvery pan was. The complement of the verb, was, is On the counter near the stove in
a silvery pan. The subject, cobbler, is preceded by the descriptors, or modifiers, deep-dish and berry. These modifiers can also be
called adjectives. Here’s the thing: This sentence, clearly, requires some thought to fully describe all of its elements, too much even.
Our goal will not be to master the complex web of the grammar of the English language and its nuances like in the sentence above.
Our goal will be to focus on its most basic syntactical form: Subject, verb, object, or SVO. Within this basic format, we have
assembled eleven other grammatical ideas that have been grouped according to their place within SVO. This is not a comprehensive
guide. Some elements are barely mentioned, subjects and nouns for example. Other areas are deeper, clauses for example.
However, what follows are eleven basic concepts that will help give richness to your writing and your language.
*All definitions taken from abouteducation.com unless otherwise indicated. *EOW is short for Elements of Writing.
Table of Contents:
1.) SVO- Subject/ Verb/ Object…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...3
2.) Subject ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….3
3.) Verb ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...3
3.1 transitive …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………3
3.2 intransitive ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4
3.3 copula …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….4
3.4 predicate…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………4
3.5 passive voice ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………5
3.6 active voice ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5
4.) Helping verbs (auxiliary verbs) ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..5
4.1 main verb …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………6
4.2 gerund ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..6
4.3 adverb ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7
5.) Object ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..8
5.1 direct object ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8
5.2 indirect object ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………8
5.3 pronouns ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
5.4 antecedent …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………9
5.5 demonstrative adjectives ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………10
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Table of Contents cont.
6.) Phrase ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
6.1 appositive phrase ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
6.2 infinitive phrase ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 11
6.3 prepositional phrase ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………11
6.4 introductory phrase ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
6.5 participial phrase ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12
6.6) interrupter ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………13
6.7/6.8 nonrestrictive clauses vs. restrictive clauses ……………………………………………………………………………………………………14
7.) Noun ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………15
7.1 adjective ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….15
7.2 possessive pronouns ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..15
7.3 participle ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….16
7.4 proper noun …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………16
7.5 discussion of capitalization ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………17
7.6 discussion of possessive “s” …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..18
8.) Article ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
8.1 definite article ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..19
8.2 indefinite article ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………19
9.) Clause ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………20
9.1/9.2 dependent clause/ subordinate clause …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
9.3/9.4 coordinate clause/ coordinate conjunction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….21
9.5 semi-colon ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..22
9.6 adverbial clause ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..23
9.7 “that” clause …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….23
9.8 “what” clause ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………24
10.) Subordinate/coordinate clauses: Who, Whom, Whose, Which, and That ……………………………………………………………………………….24
11.) Hyphen vs. dash vs. colon …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………25
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1.0) SVO: Subject + Verb +Object. The basic word order of main clauses and subordinate clauses in present-day English.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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2.) Subject (EOW pg 584) (don’t forget gerund as the subject): The part of a sentence or clause that commonly indicates (a) what
it is about, or (b) who or what performs the action (that is, the agent).
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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3.0) Verb (EOW pg 584): Expresses action or a state of being. The term verb is sometimes also known as the simple predicate.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.1) transitive verb (EOW pg. 565): A verb that takes an object (direct or indirect).
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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3.2) intransitive verb (EOW pg. 565): A verb (such as laugh) that does not take a direct objector complement.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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3.3) copula: A verb that joins the subject of a sentence to a subject complement. In English, the verb be is sometimes referred to
as "the copula."
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.4) predicate (EOW pg. 584): Tells something about the subject.
A predicate is usually defined as a word group that comes
after the subject to complete the meaning of the sentence or clause. Whether it's just one word or many words, the predicate
usually follows the subject and tells us something about it. A simple predicate is known as a verb.
Examples. The predicate is underlined:
a.
Time flies.
b.
We will try.
c.
The Johnsons have returned.
d.
Bobo has never driven before.
e.
We will try harder next time.
f.
Pedro has not returned from the store.
g.
My brother flew a helicopter in Iraq.
h.
My mother took our dog to the vet for its shots.
i.
Our school cafeteria always smelled like stale cheese and dirty socks.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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3.5) passive voice (EOW pg. 748): The subject receives the action. The verb in a passive construction always includes a form
of be and the past participle of a transitive verb.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
3.6) active: The subject performs or causes the action expressed by the verb.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4.0) helping verbs/ auxiliary verbs: A verb that comes before the main verb (or lexical verb) in a sentence. Together
the helping verb and the main verb form a verb phrase. Sometimes a word (such as not) separates the helping verb from the main
verb. For example, in the sentence Shyla does not want a new bicycle, the helping verb is does and the main verb is want.
Examples:
a.
is, am, are, was, were
b.
be, being, been
c.
has, have, had
d.
do, does, did
e.
will, shall, should, would
f.
can, could
g.
may, might, must
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
4.1) main verb: Any verb that is not an auxiliary verb. A verb phrase is the helping verb plus the main verb. The final word in a
verb phrase, the main verb, carries the primary meaning of the verb phrase. Sometimes more than one helping verb accompanies
the main verb. In the following sentences, the verb phrases are bold; HV appears [after] each helping verb, and MV appears [after]
each main verb.
Examples:
a.
He is [HV] biking [MV] to Vermont from Boston.
b.
They will [HV] arrive [MV] in time for the game.
c.
Cy Young has [HV] *always been [HV] considered [MV] one of the best pitchers in baseball history. *always is an adverb.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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4.2) gerund: ends in -ing
Gerunds and Verbal Nouns
- "Because they are nounlike, we can think of gerunds as names. But rather than naming persons, places, things, events, and the like,
as nouns generally do, gerunds, because they are verbs in form, name activities or behaviors or states of mind or states of being."
(Martha Kolln and Robert Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn & Bacon, 1998)
- "A gerund is derived from a verb by adding the suffix -ing. The result is still a verb, and it exhibits ordinary verbal properties, such
as taking objects and adverbs. Example: In football, deliberately tripping an opponent is a foul. Here the verb trip occurs in its gerund
form tripping, but this tripping is still a verb: it takes the adverb deliberately and the object an opponent. However, the entire
phrase deliberately tripping an opponent, because of the gerund within it, now functions as a noun phrase, in this case as
the subject of the sentence. So, a gerund is still a verb, but the phrase built around it is nominal, not verbal.
"Very different is a verbal noun constructed with -ing. Though derived from a verb, a verbal noun is strictly a noun, and it exhibits
nominal properties . . .."
(R.L. Trask, Mind the Gaffe! Harper, 2006)
Differences Between Gerunds and Participles
- "Because some [participles] are identical to gerunds, they can get confusing:
Visiting relatives can be fun.
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Does this mean that the act of visiting (visiting as a gerund) can be fun, or that relatives who are visiting (visiting as a modifier) can be
fun? We don't know." (June Casagrande, It Was the Best of Sentences, It Was the Worst of Sentences. Ten Speed Press, 2010)
- "Present participles and gerunds look similar as words, and they also look similar as phrases. Again, it is the -ing verbal form that
causes this problem. To clearly distinguish these, we need to consider their grammatical functions. A present participle functions as
a non-finite form of a verb phrase, after verbs of motion and position; it can be an adverb complement after these verbs; it can
qualify/modify as an adjective does. In contrast, gerunds like nouns have naming roles and can occupy the place of nouns in many of
their grammatical functions. Unlike nouns, they do not name persons, places, things, or events; they name actions, states, and
behaviors."
(Bernard O'Dwyer, Modern English Structures: Form, Function, And Position, 2nd ed. Broadview, 2006)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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4.3) adverb (ly, negation): Primarily used to modify a verb, adjective, or other adverb.
Adverbs typically add information
about time (rarely, frequently, never, now, always, tomorrow), manner (slowly, quickly, willingly), or place (here, there, everywhere)
in addition to a wide range of other meanings.
Examples. Adverbs are underlined:
a.
"To travel hopefully is a better thing than to arrive."
(Robert Louis Stevenson)
b.
"Elmer Gantry was drunk. He was eloquently drunk, lovingly and pugnaciously drunk."
(Sinclair Lewis, Elmer Gantry, 1927)
c.
"I will not torment the emotionally frail."
(Bart Simpson, The Simpsons)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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5.0) Object: Receives the action of the verb.
Examples. Object is underlined.
a.
b.
c.
I like that restaurant.
She kicked him.
They stole a van and then they robbed a bank.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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5.1) direct object (EOW pg. 679): identifies what or who receives the action of a transitive verb.
Examples. Direct object is underlined.
a.
b.
c.
Zippy accidentally kicked Maurice in the shin.
Zippy and Maurice played soccer with a grapefruit pulled from a backyard tree.
Even worse, Sylina hates when Mom lectures her about hand care .
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.2) indirect object (EOW pg. 679): Comes between an action verb and a direct object and tells to whom or what or for
whom or what.
Examples. Indirect object is underlined.
a.
"Instead of answering my question, he showed me a photograph of his father, the squeamish Otho.
b.
At Chartwell, Winston Churchill painted, raised pigs, and built the children a tree house in a lime tree.
c.
"Edna . . . sat and told the children a story."
d.
"I had about two inches of water left, and passed him the bottle."
e.
"Give me a fish and I eat for a day. Teach me to fish and I eat for a lifetime."
f.
"I bought myself a parrot. The parrot talked. But it did not say, 'I'm hungry,' so it died."
g.
"I never give you my pillow.”
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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5.3) pronouns: takes the place of a noun or of more than one noun.
*Chart taken from “Mrs. Warner’s 4th Grade Classroom” http://mrswarnerarlington.weebly.com/pronouns.html
Example: Pronoun is underlined.
a.
Angelo borrowed a hammer and some nails. He will return them tomorrow.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.4) antecedent: Any word in a sentence which another word or phrase refers to.
Example: Antecedent is underlined.
a.
Angelo borrowed a hammer and some nails. He will return them tomorrow.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
5.5) demonstrative adjectives: A determiner or pronoun that points to a particular noun or to the noun it replaces.
There are four demonstratives in English: the "near" demonstratives this and these, and the "far" demonstratives that and
those. This and that are singular; these and those are plural.
A demonstrative pronoun distinguishes its antecedent from similar things. (For example, "Let me pick out the books. I want these,
not those.") When a demonstrative comes before a noun, it's sometimes called a demonstrative adjective or a demonstrative
determiner ("Son, take this bat and hit that ball out of the park").
Examples. Demonstrative adjectives are underlined.
a.
b.
c.
d.
This movie is boring.
That idea is crazy.
These brownies are delicious.
Those children are hungry.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.0) phrase: (EOW pg. 605): A group of related words that is used as a single part of speech and does not contain a verb and its
subject- not to be confused with a clause. A clause has a subject and a predicate.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.1) appositive phrase (EOW pg. 621): A noun, noun phrase, or series of nouns placed next to another word or phrase to
identify or rename it.
Examples. Appositive phrases underlined.
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a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
My father, a fat, funny man with beautiful eyes and a subversive wit, is trying to decide which of his eight children he will
take with him to the county fair.
Christmas Eve afternoon we scrape together a nickel and go to the butcher's to buy Queenie's traditional gift, a good
gnawable beef bone.
The Otis Elevator Company, the world’s oldest and biggest elevator manufacturer, claims that its products carry the
equivalent of the world’s population every five days.
Television was left on, a running tap, from morning till night.
Though her cheeks were high-colored and her teeth strong and yellow, she looked like a mechanical woman, a machine
with flashing, glassy circles for eyes."
The hangman, a grey-haired convict in the white uniform of the prison, was waiting beside his machine.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.2) infinitive phrase: Consists of an infinitive and all of the words related to the infinitive. “to ~.”
Example. Infinitive phrase is underlined.
a.
To finish early is our plan. (note: the phrase is also the subject)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.3) prepositional phrase: A group of words made up of a preposition, its object, and any of the object's modifiers.
Prepositional phrases can modify nouns, verbs, phrases, and complete clauses. As demonstrated by several of the examples below,
prepositional phrases can be embedded inside other prepositional phrases.
Examples. Prepositional phrases are underlined.
a.
I will not obey the voices in my head.
b.
Above the trees and rooftops the dingy glare of the London sky faded upwards into weak violet heights.
c.
On the counter near the stove in a silvery pan was a deep-dish berry cobbler.
d.
With spry jingles of the bell on her handlebars, a woman sped by in a crimson smock and a witchy black hat.
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e.
I was thinking that we all learn by experience, but some of us have to go to summer school.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.4) introductory phrase: Introductory clauses are dependent clauses that provide background information or "set the
stage" for the main part of the sentence, the independent clause.
*Taken from Purdue.owl: https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/607/03/
Use a comma after introductory phrases (phrase or clause that precedes the subject of the sentence):
"When you get to the end of your rope, tie a knot and hang on."
(Franklin Roosevelt)
"If at first you don't succeed, failure may be your style."
(Quentin Crisp)
However, if there's no danger of confusing readers, you may omit the comma after a short introductory phrase:
"At first I thought the challenge was staying awake, so I guzzled venti cappuccinos and 20-ounce Mountain Dews."
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.5) participial phrase: A word group consisting of a present participle (also known as an -ing form) or past participle (also
known as an -en form, -ed form), plus any modifiers, objects, and complements.
Examples. Participial phrases are underlined.

Past-Participial Phrases
a. Invented by an Indiana housewife in 1889, the first dishwasher was driven by a steam engine.
b. Driven by a steam engine, the first dishwasher was invented by an Indiana housewife in 1889.
c. "The great fish moved silently through the night water, propelled by short sweeps of its crescent tail."
d. "The idiot lived in a black and gray world, punctuated by the white lightning of hunger and the flickering of fear."
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e. "The Angelus Building looms on the corner of its block, seven stories, thick with dark windows, caged in a dingy mesh of fire
escapes."

Present-Participial Phrases
f. A referee, always working before unfriendly crowds, has orders to exude poise under the most trying circumstances.
g. Goldsmith smiled, bunching his fat cheeks like twin rolls of smooth pink toilet paper.
h. Here and there through the smoke, creeping warily under the shadows of tottering walls, emerged occasional men and women.
f. Gramp Stevens sat in a lawn chair, watching the mower at work, feeling the warm, soft sunshine seep into his bones.
g. A trailer door opened and a young woman stepped out, leading a child who beat upon her legs with a wooden spoon.
h. Whirling happily in my starchy frock, showing off my biscuit-polished patent-leather shoes and lavender socks, tossing my head in
a way that makes my ribbons bounce, I stand, hands on hips, before my father.
i. One evening, perhaps a decade ago, I was walking along Canal Street in Manhattan’s Chinatown when a fishmonger, rushing out of
his shop carrying a tank full of eels, slipped. Before he could let out a curse, there were eels and elvers everywhere: dark and
gleaming, slithering over pedestrians’ feet, wriggling off onto the asphalt, escaping through the storm drains, animating every crack
in the concrete.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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6.6) interrupter: An interrupter is a word, phrase, or clause that significantly breaks the flow of a sentence.
*Taken from “Grammar Bytes!” http://www.chompchomp.com/terms/interrupter.htm
Examples. Interrupter is underlined.
a. Please take those smelly socks to the garage, K r i s , and put them in the washing machine.
b. My essay, t o b e p e r f e c t l y h o n e s t , flew out of the bus window while I was riding to school.
c. What you just ate, i f y o u m u s t k n o w , was squid eyeball stew.
P u n c t u a t e a n i n t e r r u p t e r c o r r e c t l y . Generally, you separate an interrupter from the rest of the sentence with
commas—one in front of the interrupter and one behind. The pattern looks like this:
THE FIRST PART OF THE SENTENCE , + INTERRUPTER , + THE REST OF THE SENTENCE .
Examples. Interrupter is underlined.
d. Tonight, s u r p r i s i n g l y , Jerome has only fifty problems to solve as homework.
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e. My cat Fuzz loves to curl up on my lap and sleep. Buster, o n t h e o t h e r h a n d , prefers to use my thigh as a
scratching post.
f. The bathroom tiles, w h e n e v e r t i m e p e r m i t s , require a good scrubbing, for the grout is black with mold.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
6.7/6.8 nonrestrictive clauses vs. restrictive clauses: These are also referred to as nonessential or essential
clauses. An adjective clause usually begins with a relative pronoun: a word that relates the information in the adjective clause to a
word or a phrase in the main clause. The most common adjective clauses begin with one of these relative pronouns: who, which,
and that. An adjective clause set off from the main clause by commas is said to be nonrestrictive. Here's an example:
“Old Professor Legree, who dresses like a teenager, is going through his second childhood.”
This who clause is nonrestrictive because the information in the clause doesn't restrict or limit the noun it modifies (Old Professor
Legree). The commas signify that the adjective clause provides added, not essential, information. This practice is consistent
with Comma Guideline #4: "Use a pair of commas to set off interruptions."
On the other hand, an adjective clause that is restrictive should not be set off by commas. Here’s an example:
“An older person who dresses like a teenager is often an object of ridicule.”
Here, the adjective clause restricts or limits the meaning of the noun it modifies (An older person). A restrictive adjective clause is
not set off by commas.
So let's keep in mind two basic rules:
Nonrestrictive
An adjective clause that can be omitted from a sentence without affecting the basic meaning of the sentence should be set off by
commas.
Restrictive
An adjective clause that cannot be omitted from a sentence without affecting the basic meaning of the sentence should not be set
off by commas. Consider how these two sentences can be combined:
“My mp3 player fell apart after a few weeks. My mp3 player cost over $200.”
By substituting the relative pronoun which for the subject of the second sentence, we can create a single sentence containing an
adjective clause:
“My mp3 player, which cost over $200, fell apart after a few weeks.”
Or we may choose to substitute which for the subject of the first sentence:
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“My mp3 player, which fell apart after a few weeks, cost over $200.”
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.) noun: person, place, thing.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.1) adjective (EOW pgs. 559-561): Modifies a noun or a pronoun. In addition to their basic (or positive) forms (for
example, big and beautiful), most descriptive adjectives have two other forms: comparative (bigger and more beautiful)
and superlative (biggest and most beautiful).
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.2) possessive pronouns: A pronoun that can take the place of a noun phrase to show ownership (as in "This phone is mine).
Possessives function as adjectives in front of nouns. They include my, your, his, her, its, our, and their. Possessive pronouns stand on
their own: mine, yours, his, hers, its, ours, and theirs.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.3) participle (EOW pg. 611): a verb form used as an adjective. Present participles end in -ing (carrying, sharing, tapping). Past
participles of regular verbs end in –ed (carried, shared, tapped). Preferred terms are -ing form (which also includes gerund) and en form (or -ed form). *See also participial phrases.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
7.4) proper noun (EOW pg. 553): A particular person, place, or thing. Most proper nouns (for example, Fred, New York, Mars,
Coca Cola) begin with a capital letter. Proper nouns are not usually preceded by articles or other determiners. Most proper nouns
are singular.
How Common Nouns Can Become Proper Nouns
"A proper noun may consist of more than one word. A proper noun and a common noun often combine to form the complete name
of something—Allegheny River, Bellevue Hospital—and in such formations, both the proper noun and the common noun are
capitalized. After the full name of something has been stated in a piece of writing, however, subsequent references can be
shortened to the common noun, which will no longer be capitalized: the river, the hospital."
(Gary Lutz and Diane Stevenson, The Writer's Digest Grammar Desk Reference. F&W, 2005)
Unique Reference
"From a linguistic perspective, it makes more sense to say that a proper noun is a noun that has unique reference. It is this that
distinguishes them from common nouns, which do not have unique reference (that is why they are common nouns). By way of
illustration, consider the following sentence; notice that it contains three nouns, one proper noun, and two common nouns:
(23) Seoul is one of the largest cities on the planet.
What distinguishes Seoul, as a proper noun, from the two common nouns, cities and planet? The answer is unique reference. While there
are many thousands of cities in the world, and the universe contains more planets than we can possibly know, on the planet we
inhabit there is only one city to which the noun can be appropriately applied. This is not always the case. In fact, very few proper
nouns have absolutely unique reference in the way that Seoul does. More often, a proper noun has unique reference only within
particular, much more limited context. For example, in the United Kingdom there is only one city called Lincoln. Thus, in the context
of a discussion about Britain this proper noun has unique reference. However, in the USA there are several towns and cities with this
name. As a result, speakers will often have to specify which Lincoln they have in mind by appending the name of the relevant state:
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'Lincoln, Nebraska,' 'Lincoln, Michigan,' et cetera."
(Martin J. Endley, Linguistic Perspectives on English Grammar. Information Age, 2010)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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7.5) Discussion of capitalization (EOW pgs. 820- 836): Proper nouns, key words in titles, the pronoun I, and beginnings
of sentences are generally capitalized. However, certain conventions for capitalizing words, names, and titles vary from one style
guide to another. If in doubt, look it up on the internet.
Capitalization With Titles and Positions
"The range of titles runs the gamut from CEO to chief juggler: Chairperson Bruno Bernstein, Dr. Bruno Bernstein, Director Bruno
Bernstein, Maestro Bruno Bernstein, CEO Bruno Bernstein, Judge Bruno Bernstein, Vice President Bruno Bernstein. If you're using the
label as a title, it precedes the name and requires capitalization like any other ordinary title (Mr., Mrs., or Dr.).
"If you're using the label only as a position and it follows the name, don't capitalize it:
He hired Orilla Ortega, vice president of finance, to take over in April. (a generic reference to the position she holds.)
Vice President of Finance Orilla Ortega will take over in April. (The title Vice President of Finance is used as a title before her name in
lieu of Dr., Mrs., or Ms.) . . .
Our new vice president of finance, Orilla Ortega, will take over in April. (Vice president of finance is a generic reference to a position
here; it is not used as a title because of the pronoun our and the commas around her name.) . . .
"Note: Here's an exception to the rule: Capitalize position titles of state, federal, or international officials of high distinction, such as
President of the United States or cabinet members. Mr. President, Madam Secretary. Also keep in mind that some organizations
create their own style rules, creating their own list of 'high officials.'"
(Dianna Booher, Booher's Rules of Business Grammar. McGraw-Hill, 2008)
Capitalization With Trademark Names
"Many objects or products have trade names that are usually capitalized: Chevrolet, Honda, Coke, and Xerox, for example. While it is
not uncommon to refer to colas or photocopies in general as 'cokes' or 'xeroxes,' the trademark holders aren't very pleased with
such usages . . .. In more formal writing, especially when rights to products and their names can be an issue, it is necessary to
preserve commercial capitalization. When in doubt as to whether a name is trademarked, refer to a style manual that lists brand
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names."
(Princeton Language Institute and Joseph Hollander, 21st Century Grammar Handbook. Laurel, 1995)
Capitalization After Colons
"When an independent clause follows a colon, the independent clause can begin with a capital letter (though this is a little
uncommon):
We simply could not reach a decision about the proposal: We [or we] couldn't agree on the criteria for evaluating it.
Never use a capital letter after a colon when what follows the colon is not a complete sentence."
(Mark Lester and Larry Beason, The Mcgraw-Hill Handbook of Grammar and Usage. McGraw-Hill, 2005)
Capitalization for Emphasis
"The Americans are all mystified about why the English make such a big thing out of tea because most Americans HAVE NEVER HAD
A GOOD CUP OF TEA. That's why they don't understand."
(Douglas Adams, "Tea." The Salmon of Doubt: Hitchhiking the Galaxy One Last Time. Macmillan, 2002)
"It seemed to Beach the butler that this young man Marson had Got Above Himself."
(P.G. Wodehouse, Something Fresh, 1915)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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7.6) Discussion
of possessive “s”: Taken from http://grammar.ccc.commnet.edu/grammar/possessives.htm
Showing possession in English is a relatively easy matter (believe it or not). By adding an apostrophe and an s we can manage to
transform most singular nouns into their possessive form:




the car's front seat
Charles's car
Bartkowski's book
a hard day's work
Some writers will say that the -s after Charles' is not necessary and that adding only the apostrophe (Charles' car) will suffice to show
possession. Consistency is the key here: if you choose not to add the -s after a noun that already ends in s, do so consistently
throughout your text. William Strunk's Elements of Style recommends adding the 's. (In fact, oddly enough, it's Rule Number One in
Strunk's "Elementary Rules of Usage.") You will find that some nouns, especially proper nouns, especially when there are other -
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s and -zsounds involved, turn into clumsy beasts when you add another s: "That's old Mrs. Chambers's estate." In that case, you're
better off with "Mrs. Chambers' estate."
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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8.) article: There are two types of articles in English: the definite article (the) and the indefinite (a/an). The definite article
specifies a particular individual; the indefinite article indicates that the following noun is a member of a class.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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8.1) definite article: The definite article the is a determiner that refers to particular nouns. The dog. The cat.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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8.2) indefinite article: the determiner a or an, which marks an unspecified count noun. In other words, as a general
rule a and an don't point to any noun in particular.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.0) clause: A group of words that contains a subject and a predicate. A clause may be either a sentence (an independent clause)
or a sentence-like construction within another sentence (a dependent or subordinate clause).
What Is a Clause? Consider the following sentence:
Tom married Amy when he was 19.
The string Tom married Amy could be a complete sentence on its own; the additional string, when he was 19, could not be a
complete sentence on its own. It is a clause. A clause is a sentence-like construction contained within a sentence. The
construction when he was 19 is 'sentence-like' in the sense that we can analyse it in terms of the major sentence elements
(subject, verb, etc. . . .). It has its own subject (he), it has a verb (was), and it has a subject complement (19). In addition to these
major sentence elements, it has the subordinating conjunction when, which tells us that the clause is a subordinate clause.
Examples. Clauses are underlined.
a. "We cannot walk alone."
(Martin Luther King, Jr., "I Have a Dream")
Note: "We cannot walk alone" is an independent clause--also known as a main clause. This construction is a simple sentence.
b. "All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."
(George Orwell, Animal Farm)
Note: Orwell's sentence contains two independent clauses joined by the conjunction"and." This combination is called a compound
sentence.
c. "A woman must have money and a room of her own if she is to write fiction."
(Virginia Woolf, "A Room of Her Own")
Note: Woolf's sentence begins with an independent clause--"A woman must have money and a room of her own"--and ends with
an adverbial clause. This combination is called a complex sentence.
d. "Life moves pretty fast. If you don't stop and look around once in a while, you could miss it."
(Ferris Bueller's Day Off)
Note: "Life moves pretty fast" and "you could miss it" are independent clauses. "If you don't stop and look around once in a while" is
an adverbial clause. Therefore, Ferris's first sentence is simple; his second sentence is complex.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.1/9.2) dependent clause/ subordinate clause: A group of words that has both a subject and a verb but (unlike
an independent clause) cannot stand alone as a sentence. Also known as a subordinate clause. A dependent clause is a clause that
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cannot stand alone, because something about it implies that there is more to come. On its own, a dependent clause is left hanging,
its meaning incomplete. It must be combined with an independent clause in order to form a complete sentence.
"One type of dependent clause is essentially an independent clause with a subordinating word tacked on. Specifically, it opens with
a conjunction that indicates a dependent relationship with information elsewhere in the sentence.
(Anne Stilman, Grammatically Correct. Writer's Digest Books, 1997)
Examples. Dependent clause is underlined.
a. My fake plants died because I did not pretend to water them.
b. When I was young, I used to admire intelligent people; as I grow older, I admire kind people.
c. Whenever I get the urge to exercise, I lie down until the urge passes.
d. I am always ready to learn although I do not always like being taught.
e. A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.
f. Kindness is the language which the deaf can hear and the blind can see.
g. It doesn't matter who my father was; it matters who I remember he was.
Dependent Clauses Inside Other Dependent Clauses
"There can be levels of complexity within complex sentences. Within a dependent clause, for instance, there can be another
dependent clause. For example, in the following sentence there is a main clause . . ., a dependent clause in an adverbial relationship
with the main clause (in italics), and a dependent clause [bold italics] in an adverbial relationship with the first dependent clause:
If you want to survive the elements when you go hiking, you should remember to bring along a drink, pocket knife, whistle, map,
torch, compass, blanket and food.
(Peter Knapp and Megan Watkins, Genre, Text, Grammar: Technologies for Teaching and Assessing Writing. University of New South
Wales Press, 2005)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.3/ 9.4) coordinate clause/ coordinating conjunctions: A clause (i.e., a word group containing
a subject and predicate) that is introduced by one of the coordinating conjunctions--most commonly and or but. The coordinating
conjunctions are and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet. Please note: Use a comma when the clause is independent.
Examples. Coordinating conjunction is underlined.
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a. "I know not with what weapons World War III will be fought, but World War IV will be fought with sticks and stones."
(Albert Einstein)
b. "My wife Mary and I have been married for 47 years and not once have we had an argument serious enough to consider divorce;
murder, yes, but divorce, never."
(Jack Benny)
c. "She must have been tired, for she fell asleep the moment she inclined her head."
(Nikos Kazantzakis, Report to Greco, 1965)
d. "Man is the only animal that laughs and weeps, for he is the only animal that is struck with the difference between what things
are, and what they might have been."
(William Hazlitt)
A Note about conjunctions at the beginning of a sentence:
"And at the beginning of a sentence? During the 19th century, some schoolteachers took against the practice of beginning a
sentence with a word like but or and, presumably because they noticed the way young children often overused them in their writing.
But instead of gently weaning the children away from overuse, they banned the usage altogether! Generations of children were
taught they should 'never' begin a sentence with a conjunction. Some still are.
"There was never any authority behind this condemnation. It isn't one of the rules laid down by the first prescriptive grammarians.
Indeed, one of those grammarians, Bishop Lowth, uses dozens of examples of sentences beginning with and. And in the 20th
century, Henry Fowler, in his famous Dictionary of Modern English Usage, went so far as to call it a 'superstition.' He was right. There
are sentences starting with And that date back to Anglo-Saxon times."
(David Crystal, The Story of English in 100 Words. St. Martin's Press, 2012)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.5) semi-colon: A mark of punctuation ( ; ) used to connect independent clauses and show a closer relationship than
a period does.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.6) adverbial clause: An adverb clause begins with a subordinating conjunction (such as if, when, because, or although) and
usually includes a subject and a predicate. The name "adverbial" suggests that adverbial clauses modify verbs; but they modify
whole clauses, as shown by the examples [below]. They are traditionally classified according to their meaning, for example adverbial
clauses of reason, time, concession, manner or condition, as illustrated below.
Examples. Adverbial clause is underlined.
a. Reason
Because Marianne loved Willoughby, she refused to believe that he had deserted her.
b. Time
When Fanny returned, she found Tom Bertram very ill.
c. Concession
Although Mr D'Arcy disliked Mrs Bennet he married Elizabeth.
d. Manner
Henry changed his plans as the mood took him.
e. Condition
If Emma had left Hartfield, Mr Woodhouse would have been unhappy.
(Jim Miller, An Introduction to English Syntax. Edinburgh University Press, 2002)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.7) “That” clause: A subordinate clause that usually begins with the word that. A nominal that clause can function as
a subject,object, complement, or appositive in a declarative sentence. Sometimes called a "declarative content clause" or a "thatcomplement clause."
Examples. “That” clause is underlined.
a. "Anorexic individuals may deny that they are ill, deny that they are thin, deny that they want to be thin, and deny that they are
afraid of gaining weight."
(K. Bemis-Vitousek, "Developing Motivation for Change in Individuals With Eating Disorders." Challenge the Body Culture Conference
Proceedings. Queensland University of Technology, 1997)
b. "I keep thinking that she's in trouble somewhere."
(John Connolly, Dark Hollow. Simon & Schuster, 2001)
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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9.8) “What” clause: A type of noun clause (or a free relative clause) that begins with the word what. In a declarative
sentence, a what-clause may serve as the subject (usually followed by a form of the verb be), a subject complement, or an object.
Examples. “What” clause is underlined.
a. "What I want you to do is to go to the Turkish Consulate in Genoa, ask for the Consul and give him a message from me. Will you do
that?"
(Eric Ambler, Journey Into Fear. Hodder and Stoughton, 1940)
b. "Money was what I wanted. Other people's money."
(Harry Harrison, A Stainless Steel Trio. Tor Books, 2002)
c. "What I wanted was impossible. It was a wish for the whole affair to have been imaginary."
(Paul Theroux, My Secret History. Ballantine Books, 1989)
d. "What I wanted were new experiences. I wanted to go out into the world and test myself, to move from this to that, to explore as
much as I could."
(Paul Auster, "Hand to Mouth: A Chronicle of Early Failure." Collected Prose. Faber & Faber, 2003)
e. "What should not be forgotten is that diplomatic and military strategies must reinforce each other as part of a coherent policy."
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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10.) subordinate/coordinate clauses: Who, Whom, Whose, Which, and That:
Coordination is a
useful way of connecting ideas that are roughly equal in importance. But often we need to show that one idea in a
sentence is more important than another. On these occasions we use subordination to indicate that one part of a
sentence is secondary (or subordinate) to another part. One common form of subordination is the adjective clause--a
word group that modifies a noun. Subordination is the process of linking two clauses in a sentence so that one clause is
dependent on (or subordinate to) another.
Clauses joined by coordination are called main clauses (or independent clauses). This is in contrast to subordination, in which
a subordinate clause (for example, an adverb clause or an adjective clause) is attached to a main clause. Clausal
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subordination is often (but not always) indicated by a subordinating conjunction (in the case of adverb clauses) or a relative
pronoun (in the case of adjective clauses).
Consider how the following sentences might be combined:
”My father is a superstitious man. He always sets his unicorn traps at night.”
One option is to coordinate the two sentences:
“My father is a superstitious man, and he always sets his unicorn traps at night.”
When sentences are coordinated in this way, each main clause is given equal emphasis. What if we want to place greater emphasis
on one statement than on another? We then have the option of reducing the less important statement to an adjective clause. For
example, to emphasize that father sets his unicorn traps at night, we can turn the first main clause into an adjective clause:
“My father, who is a superstitious man, always sets his unicorn traps at night.”
As shown here, the adjective clause does the job of an adjective and follows the noun that it modifies--father. Like a main clause, an
adjective clause contains a subject (in this case, who) and a verb (is). But unlike a main clause an adjective clause can't stand alone: it
has to follow a noun in a main clause. For this reason, an adjective clause is considered to be subordinate to the main clause.
The standard relative pronouns in English are which, that, who, whom, and whose. Who and whom refer only to
people. Which refers to things, qualities, and ideas--never to people. That and whose refer to people, things, qualities, and ideas
Examples.
a. "Life wouldn't be quite so good without the one person who invented cookies, or pencils, or even toilet paper."
(Betsy Duffey, The Gadget War. Penguin, 1991)
b. "He took Stuart's temperature and found that it was 98.6, which is normal for a mouse.
(E.B. White, Stuart Little. Harper, 1945)
c. "The one place that holds interest in inland New Jersey is Princeton, an Ivy-League town that makes a pretty afternoon stop-off."
(Samantha Cook, The Rough Guide to the USA, 2011)
d. The movie industry was run for many years by people who grew up in a business that they loved and understood.
Notes/Questions/Comments:
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11.) Hyphens vs. Dashes vs. Colons: From Purdue.owl https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/3/7/98/
a. Hyphens (-) are used to connect two or more words (and numbers) into a single concept, especially for building
adjectives. Likewise, some married women use hyphens to combine their maiden name with their spouse’s name:


There are fewer Italian-American communities these days.
The family’s money-saving measures have been helping them to build their savings.
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

She has stopped buying 2-liter bottles and has started buying 0.5-liter bottles, instead.
I had a conversation with Mrs. Skinner-Kcrycek this morning.
They are also a necessary component of the numbers 21 through 99:

Before the exam, Tomas studied for thirty-three hours without sleep.
Although they can be used as substitutes for the word “to” when discussing value ranges and scores in games, it is better to use the
word in formal writing situations than the punctuation:

The high temperature will be 87-89 degrees.
b. Dashes (—) can be used to indicate an interruption, particularly in transcribed speech:
The chemistry student began to say, “An organic solvent will only work with—” when her cell phone rang.
They can also be used as a substitute for “it is, “they are,” or similar expressions. In this way they function like colons, but are not
used for lists of multiple items, and are used less frequently in formal writing situations:

There was only one person suited to the job—Mr. Lee.
They can also be used as substitutes for parentheses:

Mr. Lee is suited to the job—he has more experience than everybody else in the department—but he has been having some
difficulties at home recently, and would probably not be available.
Note that dashes are double the length of hyphens. When you type two hyphens together (--), most word processors automatically
combine them into a single dash.
c. Colon: “Note what follows” From Purdue.owl (https://owl.english.purdue.edu/engagement/2/1/44/)
Use a colon after an independent clause when introducing a list.

The catering facility offers the following entrees: fried catfish, grilled chicken, pan-seared salmon, and sirloin steak.
Use a colon after an independent clause before a long, formal statement or quotation.

My teacher’s remark on my final essay was very complimentary: “This essay coherently analyzes musical trends of the late
20th century.”
Use a colon between two independent clauses when you want to emphasize the second clause.

I don’t understand why everyone shops at that store: everything there is so expensive.
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Notes/Questions/Comments:
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