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Chapter 1
The Psychology of
Learning and
Memory
1.1
The Philosophy
of Mind
1.1 The Philosophy of Mind
•
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—
Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory
•
Aristotle and Associationism
•
Descartes and Dualism
•
John Locke and Empiricism
•
William James and Association
3
Learning and Memory
•
Learning—the process by which
behavioral changes result from
experience.
•
Memory—the record of our past
experiences acquired through learning.
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Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—
Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory
1)
Pay full attention during learning.
2)
Create associations between new
and old material.
3)
Generate meaningful images.
4)
Practice facts and skills.
5
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—
Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory
5)
Read material aloud and write it out.
6)
Use memory aids (post-it notes,
calendars, or electronic schedulers).
7)
Try to remember when and where
you first learned the material.
6
Learning and Memory in Everyday Life—
Top Top Ten Tips for a Better Memory
8)
Sleep well to increase concentration
and facilitate memory storage.
9)
Create a poem or song to learn a
string of random information.
10) If
blocked, relax and turn to
something else.
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Aristotle and Associationism
•
Aristotle (384–322 BC)
•
Principles of associationism—memory
requires linkages between pairs of
events, sensations, ideas.
Contiguity
Nearness in time and space
Frequency
Similarity
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Descartes and Dualism
•
•
Descartes (1506–1650)
Believed in dualism—immaterial mind and
material body are separate entities, governed
by their own laws.
The body works as a
machine with a fixed
response (reflex) to an
external sensory event
(stimulus).
Corbis
•
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John Locke and Empiricism
•
John Locke (1632–1704)
•
Held empiricist view—all knowledge
results from experience alone.
Children are “blank slate”
All have equal potential for knowledge.
The mind passively combines simple ideas into
complex ideas.
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William James and Association
William James (1842–1910)
• Authored Principles of Psychology
(1890)
•
Worldwide psychology text for many decades
Believed in associationism
• Memory of an event has many
components.
•
A second event may be remembered due to an
overlap of components.
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William James Memory Model
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1.1 Interim Summary
Learning = changes in behavior through
experience.
• Memory = record of past experiences;
acquired through learning.
•
•
Learning and memory = no single
process for is a single cohesive
process.
Many kinds of memory, many ways to learn.
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1.1 Interim Summary
Associationists: memory depends on
links between events, sensations, ideas.
• Aristotle: three key association principles.
•
Contiguity, frequency, similarity
•
James: remembering involves learning
links between event components.
Activation of one component could activate others.
Linkage between common components.
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1.1 Interim Summary
•
Empiricists: we are born “blank slates.”
All knowledge comes from experience.
Aristotle, Locke, Watson
•
Nativists: bulk of knowledge is inborn.
Plato, Descartes, Galton
•
Debate continues today.
Nature versus nurture
Nature (genes) is modified by experience.
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1.1 Interim Summary
•
Descartes = dualist
Mind and body are separate.
Body is a machine to be understood through
mechanical principles.
Reflex pathway; sensory stimulus to motor response.
•
Locke = empiricist
All humans born with equal potential for knowledge and
success (deserve equal opportunity).
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1.2
Evolution and
Natural Selection
1.2 Evolution and
Natural Selection
•
Erasmus Darwin and Early Proponents
of Evolution
•
Charles Darwin and the Theory of
Natural Selection
•
Francis Galton: Variability of Nature
•
Unsolved Mysteries—Can Learning
Influence Evolution?
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Erasmus Darwin and Early
Proponents of Evolution
Evolution—change in a species over
time
• Early Proponents:
•
Erasmus Darwin (1731–1892): Personal
physician to King George III of England
Grandfather of Charles Darwin and Francis Galton
Jean-Baptiste Lamark (1744–1829): French
naturalist
Proposed (falsely) that an animal can acquire a
trait from experience and pass it to progeny.
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•
Charles Darwin (1809–1882)
•
Amateur naturalist on H.M.S. Beagle
Found beak
variation in finches
that matched
survival on its
isolated Galápagos
island
HIP/Art Resource, NY
Charles Darwin and the
Theory of Natural Selection
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Darwin’s Three Criteria for Traits to
Evolve through Natural Selection
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Charles Darwin and the
Theory of Natural Selection
•
Proposed theory of natural selection.
Species evolve when a trait is inheritable, can vary,
and makes individual more “fit” for survival and
reproduction.
Traits can be physical or behavioral
•
Authored The Origin of Species (1859)
Proposes a similar ancestor for man and ape
Gives rise to evolutionary psychology (study
behavioral evolution through natural selection).
Learning is integral to survival.
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Francis Galton:
Variability of Nature
•
•
Francis Galton (1822–1911)
Charles Darwin (cousin) inspired Galton’s
study of human individual differences.
Fascinated by the physically and mentally fittest
Found that attributes (e.g., height, blood pressure,
memory skills) followed a normal distribution, a bellshaped curve.
•
Began eugenics movement (encouraged
procreation among society’s fittest)
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Francis Galton:
Variability of Nature
•
Founder of modern statistics; developed
statistical concepts like:
Hypothesis—an observation that can be tested
Correlational study—two variables tend to vary together
Experimental group (receives treatment) versus control
group (no treatment)
•
Problem: Galton’s research did not control for
confounds (extraneous variables).
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Unsolved Mysteries—
Can Learning Influence Evolution?
•
Evolution = change in a species over
time
•
Learning = a process of adaptation and
improvement
•
View learning as an adaptive process
that fine-tunes what evolution began.
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1.2 Interim Summary
•
Theory of evolution = change over time.
New traits passed from one generation to the next.
•
Charles Darwin: natural selection
Survival of the fittest = mechanism for evolution.
Trait evolution requires inheritability, natural variation,
relevance to survival.
•
Galton: all natural abilities are inherited.
Developed much of modern statistics and experimental
methodology.
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1.3
The Birth of
Experimental Psychology
1.3 The Birth of
Experimental Psychology
•
Hermann Ebbinghaus and Human
Memory Experiments
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Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning
•
Edward Thorndike: Law of Effect
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Hermann Ebbinghaus and
Human Memory Experiments
Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909)
• Completed first experiments on human
memory (used himself as sole
participant).
• Especially interested in forgetting
(memory deterioration over time).
•
Examined how long it took him to relearn a
previously learned list.
Established retention curve (percentage
time saved to relearn list).
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Hermann Ebbinghaus and
Human Memory Experiments
•
Unlike Galton, designed experiments
that examined hypothesis validity.
Dependent variable—a study’s manipulated factor
Number of nonsense syllables recalled
Independent variable—observed factor whose
change is measured
Delay between learning and relearning list
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Limitations to
Ebbinghaus Research
•
Conducted research only on himself.
As the participant, he knew the manipulated variables
(subject bias).
As the researcher, he knew the desired outcome
(experimenter bias).
•
Modern research avoids with:
Blind design—participant unaware of hypothesis
Double-blind design—both participant and
experimenter unaware of hypothesis (e.g., research
with placebo).
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Ivan Pavlov and Animal Learning
Ivan Pavlov (1849–1936)
• Russian physiologist; studies of dog
digestion lead to studies on animal
learning
•
Classical conditioning—learning that one stimulus
predicts another
Conditioned stimulus (bell) predicts unconditioned
stimulus (food)
Extinction—weakening a learned response
Pairing bell with no food
Generalization—similar sounds produce similar
conditioned responses
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Pavlov and
Learning Experiments
(a)The Granger Collection, New York / (b) Adapted from Allen et al., 2002.
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Edward Thorndike:
Law of Effect
Edward Thorndike (1874–1949)
• Research on cats’ trial-and-error
learning to escape puzzle box.
•
Instrumental conditioning—behavior determines
whether consequence will occur.
•
Law of effect—responses with desirable
consequences increase future
response;
In contrast, responses with undesirable
consequences decrease future response.
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1.3 Interim Summary
•
Ebbinghaus: studied memorization of
nonsense syllables.
Developed basic experimental techniques to study
human memory and forgetting.
•
Pavlov: classical conditioning
Studied how animals learn that an initially neutral
stimulus can predict an upcoming event.
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1.3 Interim Summary
•
Thorndike: animal behavior is modified
by consequences (reward or
punishment).
Puzzle boxes
Law of effect—the probability of a behavioral
response increases or decreases depending on the
consequences it elicits.
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1.4
The Reign
of Behaviorism
1.4 The Reign of Behaviorism
•
John Watson and Behaviorism
•
Clark Hull and Mathematical Models of
Learning
•
B. F. Skinner: Radical Behaviorism
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Edward Tolman: Cognitive Maps
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John Watson and Behaviorism
John Watson (1878–1958)
• Founded behaviorism—study is
restricted to observable behaviors.
• Studied maze learning in rats:
•
Examined rat performance motivation; eliminated
sensory stimuli.
Argued that rats learned automatic motor habits
(ability to navigate maze), independent of external
sensory cues.
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John Watson and Behaviorism
•
Published “behaviorist manifesto” in
Psychological Review (1913)
Psychology is a purely objective experimental branch
of natural science whose goal is prediction and
control of behavior.
By 1920s, behaviorism dominates psychology of
learning.
41
John Watson and Behaviorism
•
Strong empiricist; emphasized
experience (nurture) in determining
behavior and capabilities.
•
Career ends in scandal.
After scandal, applied learning principles to
advertising.
42
Clark Hull and Mathematical
Models of Learning
Clark Hull (1884–1952)
• Tried to develop a comprehensive
mathematical model of animal learning.
•
Variables = number of learning trials, frequency,
motivation, incentive value of reward
Followers developed equations to describe basic
components of learning.
Ideas abandoned; cannot reduce all learning factors
to a single equation.
43
B. F. Skinner:
Radical Behaviorism
B. F. Skinner (1904–1990)
• Developed “Skinner box.”
•
Operant conditioning chamber for automated
response learning
Intermittent reinforcement schedules
•
Authored Walden Two (1948); Beyond
Freedom and Dignity (1971).
Later work advocates radical behaviorism—
consciousness and free will are illusions.
44
Edward Tolman: Cognitive Maps
Edward Tolman (1886–1959)
• All behavior is intrinsically motivated.
• Rats form cognitive maps—internal
representations of external world’s
layout.
•
Will find alternate paths to food when learned path
blocked (find food from new start point).
•
Latent learning—learning happens in the
absence of training or consequence.
Laid groundwork for cognitive studies of learning.
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Tolman’s Cognitive Maps in Rats
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Limitation of Behaviorism
•
Behaviorism failed to explain human
cognitive abilities
e.g., language, perception, reasoning, memory
•
Cognitive psychology emphasizes the
role of higher-level human abilities
e.g., thinking, language, reasoning
Turns away from animal research.
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1.4 Interim Summary
•
Behaviorists say psychology should be
the study of observable behaviors.
•
Watson: sensory-deprivation studies
Show how rats learn maze navigation.
•
Skinner: radical behaviorism
Consciousness and free will are illusions.
Cognitive functions (e.g, language) are a series of
learned stimulus–response associations.
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1.4 Interim Summary
•
Tolman: studied how animals use goals.
Believed rats could form cognitive maps.
Some learning (i.e., latent learning) occurs without
explicit training or observable response.
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1.5
The Cognitive
Approach
1.5 The Cognitive Approach
•
W. K. Estes and Mathematical Psychology
•
Gordon Bower: Learning by Insight
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George Miller and Information Theory
•
Herbert Simon and Symbol-Manipulation
Models
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David Rumelhart and Connectionist Models
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W. K. Estes and
Mathematical Psychology
Early work with B. F. Skinner (together
they develop conditioned emotional
response to study learned fear).
• Later, found new methods to interpret
learning.
•
Built on Hull’s mathematical modeling approach.
Stimulus sampling theory explained randomness in
learning.
Each stimulus has many elements; only a random
sample is associated in each trial.
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Estes:
StimulusResponse
Models
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W. K. Estes and
Mathematical Psychology
•
Helped establish mathematical
psychology.
Use of mathematical equations to describe laws of
learning and memory.
54
Gordon Bower:
Learning by Insight
•
Interested in mathematical psychology
and insight learning.
•
A solution to a problem comes to
individuals on different trials.
Individual performance, not just group performance, is
important.
•
Influential educator and mentor.
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Bower’s
Learning
by Insight
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George Miller and
Information Theory
•
Measured human capacity of short-term
memory for digits.
Found that the human mind has a limited capacity for
digits (digit span).
“Magic” number = 7 digits, plus or minus 2
•
Information theory helps measure limits.
Mathematical theory of communication
Applies to a variety of capabilities (e.g., short-term
memory, range of judgments).
57
Herbert Simon and
Symbol-Manipulation Models
•
Herbert Simon (1916–2001)
•
A founder of artificial intelligence (AI)
•
Helped develop a new computational
approach to memory and cognition.
To study cognition, understand how the mind
manipulates symbols (internal representations of
concepts, qualities, ideas).
58
Herbert Simon and
Symbol-Manipulation Models
•
Simon and Newell’s Symbolmanipulation models
Rules and procedures to manipulate, search, update
symbols and associations; models for learning and
memory.
Began movement to use computer as a metaphor for
human mind to study thinking, reasoning, memory.
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Symbol-Manipulation Model of Memory
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David Rumelhart and
Connectionist Models
•
With James McClelland, designed
connectionist models.
Explain cognition as networks of uninformed,
unlabeled connections between “nodes” (simple
processing units).
Distributed representations
Models help integrate neuroscience with psychology.
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Distributed
Representations
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1.5 Interim Summary
•
Cognitive psychologists study higher
mental processes not explained by
behaviorism.
•
Bower: learning is not incremental.
Involves all-or-none moments of sudden insight.
•
Miller: studied learning and memory
using mathematical models.
“Magic number 7” demonstrated limits on absolute
judgments and memory capacity.
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1.5 Interim Summary
•
Mathematical psychology: equations
describe laws of learning and memory.
•
Hull: tried to find one equation to
describe all learning variables.
Followers try to develop several equations for the
basic components of learning.
•
Estes: used mathematical psychology to
describe how randomness of perception
affects memory and generalization.
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1.5 Interim Summary
•
Simon and Newell used computers in studies.
Metaphor for brain.
Tool for implementing models of how mind learns and
manipulates symbols.
•
Rumelhart and colleagues focused on
connectionist models of memory/cognition.
Networks of simple processing units.
Information = a pattern of activity across many nodes.
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