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LEARNING:
Principles
&
Applications
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning
LEARNING
A relatively permanent
change in behavior that
results from experience
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING
Learning…
 is a change in mental state.
 cannot be seen directly
 involves a change in behavior
 results from experience
CHARACTERISTICS OF LEARNING Cont.
 is relatively permanent
 can be applied from one situation to
another (transfer)
 need not involve direct experience
Learning: Principles and
Applications
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Classical Conditioning **
Operant Conditioning
Social Learning
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
Ivan Pavlov
 Russian biologist/physiologist
 Nobel Prize
 Serendipity
Pavlov: Experiment
UCS (meat) ===> UCR (salivation)
NS (tone)
===> No response
****************************
UCS (meat) + CS (tone) ===> UCR
****************************
CS
===> CR
1.) Time - Simultaneous Conditioning
A.Simultaneous conditioning
B.Interstimulus interval
1. Contiguity
a) Simultaneous
b) Forward
c) Trace
d) Backward
e) Temporal
2) Generalization
Occurs when a subject responds to a
second stimulus similar to the CS,
without being trained with the
second CS
3) Discrimination
Occurs when a subject is taught to tell the
difference between 2 stimuli.
*Opposite of generalization
**Has great value because…???
4) Extinction
Occurs over time when the experimenter
stops pairing a CS together with a UCS.
the response gradually fades away, although
not entirely forgotten or unlearned
used as a measurement… resistance to
extinction
* Partial reinforcement effect
5) Spontaneous Recovery
Occurs when , after extinction, a CS is
once again presented with a USC, the CR
appears again.
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*Not as strong
*Harmful experiences/ example
How the Body Remembers…
When the Mind Forgets…
Dog Chase example
Schizokinesis
Schizo means divided/split
Kinesis means action
WWII Vets example
6) Spatial Learning
Occurs in much the same way classical
conditioning does, but involves the learning
the location of objects in the subject’s
environment.
*Cognitive Mapping
The Case of Little Albert - Watson (1920_
Subject - 9 month old Albert
Desired Response - Fear
USC = loud noise
UCR = fear
Criticism
 Ethics / Deconditioning
Watson’s Higher Order Conditioning
Using a previously established CS-CR relationship to
create a new CS-CR relationship.
 Taking Albert’s fear of rats and conditioning a
new fear of dogs
Dog (NS)
No response
White Rat (CS)
Fear (CR)
Dog + White Rat
Fear
Dog
Fear
Other Classical Conditioning Paradigms
Jones (1924)
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Counter conditioning
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Used ice cream
Mower (1938)
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Used applied science

Bed wetting

Bell and pad conditioning apparatus
Garcia & Koelling(1966)
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Taste aversion

Electric shock
 Gustavson (1974)
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Taste aversion

Coyotes/sheep
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CTA (conditioning taste aversion)
Learning: Principles and
Applications
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Classical Conditioning 
Operant Conditioning **
Social Learning
II. Operant Conditioning

LEARNING FROM THE
CONSEQUENCES OF
BEHAVIOR OF OTHERS
Differences Between Classical and
Operant Conditioning
 Way psychologists
view learners
 Concept of
reinforcement
Three Laws of Conditioning
1. The law of association
2. Repetition is a part of
conditioning
3. The law of effect
A. Reinforcement
1)
2)
3)
B.F. Skinner
S-R psychology
Positive reinforces
a) Approval
b) Money
c) Privileges
Schedules of Reinforcement
Dictate the frequency with which the behavior is rewarded
1.
Continuous schedule of reinforcement
2.
Partial schedule of reinforcement
3.
Ratio schedules


4.
Fixed ratio schedules
Variable ratio schedules
Interval schedules

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Fixed interval schedules
Variable interval schedules
B. Stimulus Control

Signals are stimuli that are associated
with reward or punishment
 Skinner & the Pigeons
 Response(the pecking) ----->
reinforcement (food)
Stimulus Control cont.
1. Secondary reinforcers (conditioned reinforcers)
 Wolfe (1936) chimp study
2. Primary reinforcers
 Satisfy a basic need (hunger…)
 Examples: food, sex, avoidance of pain, feeling
of belonging…
 Jeans example
C. Aversive Control
1.
Negative reinforcement - painful or unpleasant
stimulus is either removed as a result of appropriate
behavior or not applied at all
 Escape conditioning (ex. Electric shock to
Skinner rat)
 Avoidance conditioning (ex. Flashing lights
& electric shock, lever)
C. Aversive Control
2. Punishment - unpleasant stimulus applied as a
result of undesirable behavior (after the fact)
 Often effective for stopping a specific
behavior
 Less effective for stopping a general
behavior
Negative Reinforcement vs Punishment
 Negative reinforcement is
opposite of punishment
 Negative reinforcement increases
a behavior
 Punishment decreases a behavior
6 effects of punishment:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
May slow down learning instead of speeding
it up
May suppress good behavior as well as bad
Behavior may resurface when punisher is not
around
May create an expectation of failure;
punishment becomes self-defeating
May be negatively associated with power
May have negative effects on the punisher
Summary of Aversion Control
 If punishment is used, it should be clear
that certain behavior will be rewarded

Punishment really suppresses, rather than
eliminates undesirable behavior
Example that fits all 3 categories (Running)
Learning: Principles and
Applications
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Classical Conditioning 
Operant Conditioning 
Social Learning **
3 Factors That Affect Learning
1. Feedback
2. Transfer
3. Practice
1.
Feedback
 Finding out the results
of an action or
performance
 Increases the speed of
learning
2.
Transfer
 Using a skill that you have
already learned to help you learn
another skill
a. Positive Transfer
b. Negative Transfer
a. Positive Transfer
 A previously learned response helps
in learning a new response
Ex. Moving from tricycle to bicycle
b. Negative Transfer
 A previously learned response
hinders in learning a new response
Ex. Moving from 4 wheel Skating to inline
skating
3. Practice
 The repetition of a task
 How & when you practice is most
important
 Psychologists have found that practice
is most effective if it takes place
regularly over time, rather than all at
once
Ex. Mental Practice
Learning Strategies
1. Learning to learn
2. Learned helplessness
3. Learned laziness
1. Learning To Learn

Harry Harlow monkey study (1949)
 Find the raisin
 Started with only under one
color/ locations changed
Harry Harlow monkey study Phase
Two
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Shapes changed, as did location
Monkeys finally learned that location did
not matter, only the difference between the
2 lids
HOW CAN YOU APPLY THIS TO YOUR OWN LEARNING?
2. Learned Helplessness
A general learning strategy in
which subjects believe that they
are powerless to affect the
outcome of a situation, so it is
useless to try to change it
Learned Helplessness cont.
 Hiroto (1974)
 2 groups of college students / loud noises
 Illustrates concept of learned helplessness
 Seligman (1982)
 Proposed that learned helplessness is one of
the major causes of depression
 Initial study with dogs/applied to humans
Learned Helplessness and Depression
 less motivation
 poor self-concept
 may cause depression
Learned Helplessness & Depression cont.
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Stability (temporary vs stable)
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Globality (specific vs global)

Internality (internal vs external cause)
3. Learned Laziness
Failure to overcome a problem
because the subject knows that
he won’t be punished as a
result, or because he knows that
someone will do it for him
…Learning Complicated Skills
 Shaping
 Chaining
1. Shaping
Sculpting new responses out of old ones
 Rats raising a flag
 Skinner’s bowling pigeons
 Lovaas (1967)
2. Combining Responses: Chaining
a. Response chains
b. Response patterns
a. Response Chains
 A group of responses that
follow each other in a
sequence
Ex. Babies drinking bottles…
b. Response Patterns
 A cluster of chained responses that
operate together to produce a
complex behavior
Ex. Swimming (arm stroke chain, breathing
chain, and leg kicking chain… all performed
@ the same time)
Modeling
a. Cuing
b. Observational Learning
c. Social Learning Theory
a. Cuing
The behavior of others acts
as a cue for the appropriate
way to behave
b. Observational Learning
 Coined by Albert Bandura
 Imitation
 The ability to reproduce a
behavior that you have watched
someone else perform
4 Processes of Observational Learning
1.
2.
3.
4.
Attention
Retention
Reproduction of Action
Motivation
C. Social Learning Theory
 Learning of social skills is
done by observational
learning
 Albert Bandura
Bandura: The Bobo Doll Experiment
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Bobo doll video
Frustrating experience
Playing experience
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Variations…
The Bobo Doll Experiment - Conclusion
BOTH classical and operant
conditioning can take place
through observational learning
by observing another’s
conditioning
Behavior Modification
Applying principles of learning to change
people’s actions and feelings
Computer assisted Instruction (CAI)
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Concept invented by SL Presser
Teaching machine invented by BF Skinner
(my boyfriend)
Token Economies
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Systematically paying people to behave
appropriately
Cohen and Filipczak - National training
School experiment
Miller and Schneider preschool experiment
Head Start