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LEARNING
Definition
 “The term learning covers every modification in
behavior to meet environmental requirements”.
(Gardner Murphy, 1968)
 Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or
the strengthening or weakening of old behavior
as the result of experience.
(Henry P Smith, 1962)
 Learning can be defined as any relatively
permanent change in behavior which occurs as
a result of practice or experience.
 Learning is a change in behaviorchange- better or worse
 It’s a change that take place through
practice or experience; changes due to
growth and maturation are not
learning.
 The change must be relatively
permanent, it must last for a fairly
long period.
Characteristics
Process
Experience and training
Bring changes in the behavior
Prepares an individual for necessary
adjustment and adaptation.
 Goal- oriented
 Universal and continuous
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Types of Learning
Verbal learning-acquisition of verbal behavior
Motor learning-motor skills
Concept learning- mental image.
Problem solving- higher learning; reasoning,
thinking, power of observation, discrimination,
generalization, imagination, ability to infer and
draw conclusions etc.
 Serial learning- alphabet, numbers, tables etc.
 Paired- associate learning- based on the
association.
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CONDITIONING
 It’s a form of associative learning.
 Two types of conditioning
- Classical/pavlovian conditioning.
- Instrumental/operant
conditioning.
Classical Conditioning
 Ivan P Pavlov (1927)
Components of classical conditioning
1.The unconditional stimulus (UCS)- unconditioned
means that the stimulus in question need not require
prior training to produce the desired response.
2. The unconditional response (UCR)-It is the response that elicited by the UCS.
-UCS reliably elicits the UCR
- UCR is often referred to as a highly reflexive
response, one which happens quickly and quite
automatically when the UCS occurs.
3. The conditioned stimulus (CS)
The CS is that stimulus which comes to elicit a
response by being paired properly in time with
the UCS (Bell).
4. The Conditioned Response (CR)
The CR is learned reflex which arises when the
CS is paired properly in time with the UCS. The
CR is referred to as a conditioned reflex for it
becomes conditional upon the presentation of
the CS.
 Learning is a habit formation and based on the
principle of association and substitution.
Principles of Conditioning
1.Extinction- The process related with the
gradual disappearance of the
conditioned response on connecting the
S-R association is called extinction.
 If conditioned stimulus present alonedecrease the CR and disappear
2.Spontaneous Recovery- after extinction
reappearance of CR spontaneously but
pairing of CS and US
Cont…
3.Stimulus Generalization- Pavlov’s dog
provided response (salivation) not at the
sight of the food but to every stimulus like
ringing of the bell, appearance of light,
sound of the foot steps of the feeder etc.
associated with its getting of the food.
 Stimulus Discrimination- Stimulus
discrimination is the opposite of stimulus
generalization
 Sharp contrast to response in a usual fashion
the subject learns to react differently in
different situation.
Cont..
 This may help us learning to react
only to a single specific stimulus out
of the multiplicity of stimuli and
enabling us to distinguish and
discriminate among a variety of
stimuli present in our environment.
Application of Classical Conditioning
 Fear, Love and Hatred towards an
object phenomenon or environment
are created through classical
conditioning.
 Example: If a father punishing
continuously
 Teachers misbehavior and improper
teaching may leads to distaste
towards the subject
OPERANT(INSTRUMENTAL)
CONDITIONING
 BF Skinner
 Basis of operant conditioning is trial and
error theory of Thorndike
 Operant is a set of acts which constitutes
an organism’s doing something. Ex: raising
head, walking etc.
 Operant conditioning refers to a kind of
learning process whereby a response is
made more probable or more frequent by
reinforcement.
Reinforcer and Reinforcement
 Reinforcement is an identical to the
presentation of reward.
 Reinforcer is the stimulus whose
presentation or removal increase the
probability of a response re-occuring.
 Reinforcement
1.Positive- presentation
2.Negative – removal/withdraw
Both are leads to favorable consequence
Schedules of Reinforcement
1.Continuous reinforcement schedule
2.Fixed interval reinforcement schedule
3.Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule
4.Variable reinforcement schedule
 Reinforcement and its schedule play a
key role in the conditioning or
operant behavior and acquisition of
learning
Cont…
 Continuous
reinforcement
schedule
increase the response rate, thus least
resistance
to
extinction
and
lowest
response rate during learning.
 Escape Learning- an organism acquires a
response that decrease or ends some
aversive stimulation
 Avoidance Learning- an organism acquires
a response that prevents some aversive
stimulation from occurring.
 Two- process theory of avoidance given by
Mowrer.
Punishment
 It occurs when an event following a
response decrease the tendency to make
that response
 Presentation of aversive stimulusweakening response.
Mechanism of operant conditioning
 Once a response occurs, its reinforced
through a suitable reinforcer
 In due course response gets conditioned by
constantly reinforcing.
 Shaping
Implication of the operant
conditioning
 Behavior modification
 Development of human personality.
 Development of teaching and
programmed learning.
Trial and Error Learning
 Edward L Thorndike (1874-1949)
 Experiment on hunger cat in a puzzle
box and its components are:
1.Drive- hunger which was intensified
with the sight of food.
2.Goal- to get the food by getting out of
the box
3.Block- the cat was confined in the box
with a closed door.
Cont..
4.Chance success- as a result of this
striving and random movement the cat
by chance succeeded in opening the
door.
5.Selection- gradually the recognized the
correct manipulation of latch.
6.Fixation- the cat learned the proper way
of opening the door by eliminating all
the incorrect response and fixing only
the right response
Laws of Learning
1. Law of Readiness: Readiness is preparation for
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action. If the child is ready to learn, he learns more
quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than
if he is unwilling to learn.
It warns us not make the child learn till he is ready to
learn and also not to miss any opportunity of
providing learning experience if the child is already
prepared to learn.
State of mind should be very well and organized and
maximum use of this knowledge should be made by
the teacher.
2.Law of effect
 The learning takes place properly when it
results in satisfaction and the learner
derives pleasure out of it.
 In a situation where the child meets with
failure or gets no satisfaction, the progress
on the path of learning is blocked.
 All the pleasant experience have a lasting
influence and are remembered for a long
time, while the unpleasant ones are soon
forgotten.
 Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction leads to
effectiveness of learning
3. Law of exercise
 Law of use- strengthening of
connection with practice.
 Law of disuse- weakening
4.Law of multiple response
When individual is confronted with a
new situation he responds in a variety
of ways before arriving at the correct
response
5. Law of attitude
The learner performs the task properly if
he/she has developed healthy attitude/
6.Law of analogy
An individual responds new situation on the
basis of the responses made by him in
similar situation
7. Law of associative shifting
Any response which is possible can be
linked with any stimulus
Theory of Insightful Learning
 Wolfgang Kohler- gestalt psychologist
 The process of learning as a gestalt- an
organized whole. A thing cannot be
understood by study of its constituent parts
but only by study of it as a totality is the
basic idea behind this theory.
 Learning as a purposive, exploratory and
creative enterprise
 Gestalt psychology used the term “insight” to
describe the perception of the whole situation
by the learner and his/her intelligence in
responding to the proper relationship
Cont..
 Chimpanzee experiment
 Insightful learning- sudden “aha” or bolt of
lightening. Its bound to depend upon the
factors given below
 Experience
 Intelligence
 Learning situation
 Initial efforts
 Repetition and Generalisation
Transfer of Learning
 The carry over of habits of thinking,
feeling or working of knowledge or skills
from one learning area to another
usually is referred to as the transfer of
learning (Crow & Crow, 1973)
 Transfer refers to the transfer of
knowledge, training, and habits acquired
in one situation to another situation.
Types of transfer
 Positive
Transferwhen
something
previously learned benefits performance or
learning in a new situation
 Negative
Transferwhen
something
previously learned hinders performance or
learning in a new situation.
 Zero Transfer- previous learning makes no
difference at all to the performance or
learning in a new situation.