Download LO 14.1

Psychology
CHAPTER
6
Learning and
Language
Development
Module 14
Classical Conditioning
Learning Objectives
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LO 14.1
LO 14.2
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LO 14.3
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
How can classical conditioning be specialized to affect
emotions?
How does classical conditioning function in our everyday
lives?
What is Learning?
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Learning – any relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about by
experience or practice.
– When people learn anything, some part of
their brain is physically changed to record
what they have learned.
– Any kind of change in the way an organism
behaves is learning.
– Change controlled by a genetic blueprint is
called maturation.
Pavlov and Classical Conditioning
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Ivan Pavlov – Russian physiologist
(person who studies the workings of
the body) who discovered classical
conditioning through his work on
digestion in dogs.
• Classical conditioning - learning to
make a reflex response to a stimulus
other than the original, natural stimulus
that normally produces the reflex.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) - a
naturally occurring stimulus that leads
to an involuntary (reflex) response.
– Unconditioned means “unlearned” or
“naturally occurring.”
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Unconditioned response (UCR) - an
involuntary response to a naturally
occurring or unconditioned stimulus.
• Neutral stimulus (NS) - stimulus that
has no effect on the desire response.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Conditioned stimulus (CS) - stimulus
that becomes able to produce a learned
reflex response by being paired with
the original unconditioned stimulus.
– A neutral stimulus can become a
conditioned stimulus when paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Conditioned response (CR) - learned
reflex response to a conditioned
stimulus.
– Sometimes called a conditioned reflex.
Figure 14.1 Classical Conditioning
Before conditioning takes place, the sound of the bell does not cause salivation and is a neutral stimulus, or NS. During
conditioning, the sound of the bell occurs just before the presentation of the food, the UCS. The food causes salivation,
the UCR. When conditioning has occurred after several pairings of the bell with the food, the bell will begin to elicit a
salivation response from the dog without any food. This is learning, and the sound of the bell is now a CS and the
salivation to the bell is the CR.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Although classical conditioning happens
quite easily, there are a few basic
principles that researchers have
discovered:
– The CR (conditioned response) and UCR
(unconditioned response) are essentially
the same—salivation.
– An unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is always
followed by a conditioned stimulus (CS).
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Stimulus generalization - the tendency
to respond to a stimulus that is only
similar to the original conditioned
stimulus with the conditioned response.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Stimulus discrimination - the tendency
to stop making a generalized response
to a stimulus that is similar to the
original conditioned stimulus because
the similar stimulus is never paired with
the unconditioned stimulus.
Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 14.1
What are the principles of classical conditioning?
• Extinction - the disappearance or
weakening of a learned response
following the removal or absence of the
unconditioned stimulus (in classical
conditioning) or the removal of a
reinforcer (in operant conditioning).
• Spontaneous recovery - the
reappearance of a learned response
after extinction has occurred.
Figure 14.2 Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
This graph shows the acquisition, extinction, spontaneous recovery, and reacquisition of a conditioned salivary
response. Typically, the measure of conditioning is the number of drops of saliva elicited by the CS on each trial. Note
that on the day following extinction, the first presentation of the CS elicits quite a large response.
Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 14.2
How can classical conditioning be specialized to affect emotions?
• Conditioned emotional response (CER)
- emotional response that has become
classically conditioned to occur to
learned stimuli, such as a fear of dogs
or the emotional reaction that occurs
when seeing an attractive person.
– CERs may lead to phobias – irrational fear
responses.
Conditioned Emotional Response
LO 14.2
How can classical conditioning be specialized to affect emotions?
• Vicarious conditioning - classical
conditioning of a reflex response or
emotion by watching the reaction of
another person.
Taste Aversion
LO 14.3
How does classical conditioning function in our everyday lives?
• Conditioned taste aversion development of a nausea or aversive
response to a particular taste because
that taste was followed by a nausea
reaction, occurring after only one
association.
Taste Aversion
LO 14.3
How does classical conditioning function in our everyday lives?
• Biological preparedness - the tendency
of animals to learn certain associations,
such as taste and nausea, with only
one or few pairings due to the survival
value of the learning.
Module 15
Operant Conditioning
Learning Objectives
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LO
LO
LO
LO
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4
What is Thorndike's law of effect?
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
How does operant conditioning function in everyday life?
Law of Effect
LO 15.1
What is Thorndike's law of effect?
• Operant conditioning - the learning of
voluntary behavior through the effects
of pleasant and unpleasant
consequences to responses.
Law of Effect
LO 15.1
What is Thorndike's law of effect?
• Thorndike's Law of Effect - law stating
that if a response is followed by a
pleasurable consequence, it will tend to
be repeated, and if followed by an
unpleasant consequence, it will tend
not to be repeated.
Skinner's Contribution
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Behaviorist; wanted to study only
observable, measurable behavior.
• Gave “operant conditioning” its name.
– Operant - any behavior that is voluntary.
Skinner's Contribution
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• In classical conditioning, learning
depends on what happens before the
response.
– Antecedent stimuli - stimuli that comes
before another.
• In operant conditioning, learning
depends on what happens after the
response — the consequence.
Reinforcement
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Reinforcement - any event or stimulus,
that when following a response,
increases the probability that the
response will occur again.
– Reinforcer - any event or object that, when
following a response, increases the
likelihood of that response occurring again.
Reinforcement
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Reinforcement (continued)
– Primary reinforcer - any reinforcer that is
naturally reinforcing by meeting a basic
biological need, such as hunger, thirst, or
touch.
– Secondary reinforcer - any reinforcer that
becomes reinforcing after being paired with
a primary reinforcer, such as praise,
tokens, or gold stars.
Positive and Negative Reinforcement
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Positive reinforcement - the
reinforcement of a response by the
addition or experiencing of a
pleasurable stimulus (a reward
following a response).
• Negative reinforcement - the
reinforcement of a response by the
removal, escape from, or avoidance of
an unpleasant stimulus.
Figure 15.1 Two Forms of Reinforcement
In the example of positive reinforcement, a child earns a good grade and receives a pleasurable consequence: a hug
from a parent. In the example of negative reinforcement, the noise outside a child's window is preventing the child from
sleeping. The child removes the unpleasant stimulus (the loud noise) by wearing headphones.
Punishment
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Punishment - any event or object that,
when following a response, makes that
response less likely to happen again.
• Punishment by application - the
punishment of a response by the
addition or experiencing of an
unpleasant stimulus.
Punishment
LO 15.2
What are the principles of operant conditioning?
• Punishment by removal - the
punishment of a response by the
removal of a pleasurable stimulus.
Table 15.1 Negative Reinforcement vs. Punishment by Removal
Shaping
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Shaping - technique in which a person
is rewarded for gradually coming closer
to demonstrating a desirable behavior
by reinforcing steps toward the desired
behavior and extinguishing behaviors
that move away from the desired
behavior.
– Successive approximations - small steps in
behavior, one after the other, that lead to a
particular goal behavior.
Other Classical Conditioning Concepts
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Extinction – occurs if the behavior
(response) is not reinforced.
• Operantly conditioned responses also
can be generalized to stimuli that are
only similar to the original stimulus.
• Spontaneous recovery (reoccurrence of
a once extinguished response) also
happens in operant conditioning.
Operant Stimuli and
Stimulus Control
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Discriminative stimulus - any stimulus,
such as a stop sign or a doorknob, that
provides the organism with a cue for
making a certain response in order to
obtain reinforcement.
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Partial reinforcement effect - the
tendency for a response that is
reinforced after some, but not all,
correct responses to be very resistant
to extinction.
• Continuous reinforcement - the
reinforcement of each and every
correct response.
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Fixed interval schedule - schedule of
reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is
always the same.
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Variable interval schedule of
reinforcement - schedule of
reinforcement in which the interval of
time that must pass before
reinforcement becomes possible is
different for each trial or event.
• Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement schedule of reinforcement in which the
number of responses required for
reinforcement is always the same.
Schedules of Reinforcement
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Variable ratio schedule of reinforcement
- schedule of reinforcement in which
the number of responses required for
reinforcement is different for each trial
or event.
Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Instinctive drift - tendency for an
animal's behavior to revert to
genetically controlled patterns.
– Each animal comes into the world (and the
laboratory) with certain genetically
determined instinctive patterns of behavior
already in place.
Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
LO 15.3
What are some specializations of operant conditioning?
• Instinctive drift (continued)
– These instincts differ from species to
species.
– There are some responses that simply
cannot be trained into an animal regardless
of conditioning.
Behavior Modification
LO 15.4
How does operant conditioning function in everyday life?
• Behavior modification - the use of
operant conditioning techniques to
bring about desired changes in
behavior.
• Token economy - type of behavior
modification in which desired behavior
is rewarded with tokens.
Behavior Modification
LO 15.4
How does operant conditioning function in everyday life?
• Time-out - a form of mild punishment
by removal in which a misbehaving
animal, child, or adult is placed in a
special area away from the attention of
others.
– Essentially, the organism is being
“removed” from any possibility of positive
reinforcement in the form of attention.
Behavior Modification
LO 15.4
How does operant conditioning function in everyday life?
• Applied behavior analysis (ABA) –
modern term for a form of behavior
modification that uses shaping
techniques to mold a desired behavior
or response.
Biofeedback and Neurofeedback
LO 15.4
How does operant conditioning function in everyday life?
• Biofeedback- the use of feedback about
biological conditions to bring
involuntary responses such as blood
pressure and relaxation under
voluntary control.
• Neurofeedback - form of biofeedback
using brainscanning devices to provide
feedback about brain activity in an
effort to modify behavior.
Module 16
Cognitive Learning and
Observational Learning
Learning Objectives
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LO 16.1
LO 16.2
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LO 16.3
What occurs in observational learning?
How does observational learning function in everyday
life?
What is cognitive learning theory?
Observational Learning
LO 16.1
What occurs in observational learning?
• Observational learning - learning new
behavior by watching a model perform
that behavior.
Four Elements
of Observational Learning
LO 16.2
How does observational learning function in everyday life?
• Attention
– To learn anything through observation, the
learner must first pay attention to the
model.
• Memory
– The learner must also be able to retain the
memory of what was done, such as
remembering the steps in preparing a dish
that was first seen on a cooking show.
Four Elements of Observational Learning
LO 16.2
How does observational learning function in everyday life?
• Imitation
– The learner must be capable of
reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the
model.
• Motivation
– Finally, the learner must have the desire to
perform the action.
Cognitive Learning Theory
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Early days of learning – focus was on
behavior.
• 1950s and more intensely in the 1960s,
many psychologists were becoming
aware that cognition, the mental events
that take place inside a person's mind
while behaving, could no longer be
ignored.
• Edward Tolman - early cognitive
scientist.
Latent Learning
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Edward Tolman's best-known
experiments in learning involved
teaching three groups of rats the same
maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik,
1930).
– Group 1 - rewarded each time at end of
maze.
 Learned maze quickly.
Latent Learning
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Edward Tolman's best-known
experiments in learning involved
teaching three groups of rats the same
maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik,
1930).
– Group 2 - in maze every day; only
rewarded on 10th day.
 Demonstrated learning of maze almost
immediately after receiving reward.
Latent Learning
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Edward Tolman (continued)
– Group 3 - never rewarded.
 Did not learn maze well.
• Latent learning - learning that remains
hidden until its application becomes
useful.
Figure 16.1 Learning Curves for Three Groups of Rats
In the results of the classic study of latent learning, Group 1 was rewarded on each day, while Group 2 was rewarded
for the first time on Day 11. Group 3 was never rewarded. Note the immediate change in the behavior of Group 2 on
Day 12 (Tolman & Honzik, 1930).
Insight
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Insight - the sudden perception of
relationships among various parts of a
problem, allowing the solution to the
problem to come quickly.
– Cannot be gained through trial-and-error
learning alone.
– “Aha” moment.
Learned Helplessness
LO 16.3
What is cognitive learning theory?
• Learned helplessness - the tendency to
fail to act to escape from a situation
because of a history of repeated
failures in the past.
Module 17
Language
Learning Objectives
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LO
LO
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17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4
17.5
What is language, and how is it structured?
How are language and thought related?
How is language acquired?
What are the theories of language acquisition?
Which parts of the brain are associated with language,
and how does brain damage affect language?
Language
LO 17.1
What is language, and how is it structured?
• Language - a system for combining
symbols (such as words) so that an
unlimited number of meaningful
statements can be made for the
purpose of communicating with others.
Elements and Structure of Language
LO 17.1
What is language, and how is it structured?
• Grammar - the system of rules
governing the structure and use a of
language.
• Syntax - the system of rules for
combining words and phrases to form
grammatically correct sentences.
• Morphemes - the smallest units of
meaning within a language.
– Semantics - the rules for determining the
meaning of words and sentences.
Elements and Structure of Language
LO 17.1
What is language, and how is it structured?
• Phonemes - the basic units of sound in
language.
• Pragmatics - aspects of language
involving the practical ways of
communicating with others, or the
social “niceties” of language.
Language and Cognition
LO 17.2
How are language and thought related?
• Cognitive universalism – theory that
concepts are universal and influence
the development of language.
Animal Language
LO 17.2
How are language and thought related?
• Studies have been somewhat
successful in demonstrating that
animals can develop a basic kind of
language, including some abstract
ideas.
Stages of Language Development
LO 17.3
How is language acquired?
• 2 months old - cooing (producing vowel
sounds).
• 6 months old - babbling (creating
consonant sounds).
• 1 year old - holophrases (single words
meant to represent entire phrases of
meaning).
Stages of Language Development
LO 17.3
How is language acquired?
• 18 months old - grouping words
together in short sentences.
• 6 years old - as fluent as an adult but
with limited vocabulary.
Language Acquisition
LO 17.4
What are the theories of language acquisition?
• Language acquisition device (LAD) born with an ability to understand and
learn how to speak language.
• Environmental factors, such as an
adult's tone toward a child, also
influence language acquisition.
Language and the Brain
LO 17.5
Which parts of the brain are associated with language, and how does brain damage affect language?
• Broca's aphasia - condition resulting
from damage to Broca's area, causing
the affected person to be unable to
speak fluently, to mispronounce words,
and to speak haltingly.
Language and the Brain
LO 17.5
Which parts of the brain are associated with language, and how does brain damage affect language?
• Wernicke's aphasia - condition resulting
from damage to Wernicke's area,
causing the affected person to be
unable to understand or produce
meaningful language.