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Learning and motivation: Mazes, aversion and operant conditioning Dr. Anna Johnson Week 11 Thursday 12th April 2007 Students please note: I have included quite a few links to web pages that will help define and explain concepts in this (and future weeks) slides. Therefore, for the links to work you need to be on-line and have access to the internet. Today • Mazes • Aversion • Operant Conditioning Mazes Types of mazes • • • • • • • Classical maze T – maze Multiple t-maze Y – maze Radial Y – maze Elevated plus maze Morris water maze Classical Maze http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm T - Mazes http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm http://btc.bol.ucla.edu/id27.htm Questions from a T – Maze? • Side preferences • Learning • Preference http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm The Multiple T-maze http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm Questions from a multiple T – Maze? • Cognitive maps and latent learning • Place learning vs. response learning http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm The Y-maze http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm Questions from a Y – Maze? • Novelty and memory http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm Piglet Motivation • Y-maze tests piglet relative motivations • Mother’s odor is learned by 12 hours of age • Piglet motivation to be near the odor of their mother is stronger than their motivation for heat John McGlone Lab, TTU A B The radial arm maze Maze Types http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm Maze Types II Questions from a Radial Arm Maze • Short-term memory • Behavioral neuroscience http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm Elevated Plus Maze http://www.med-associates.com/mazes/elevatedmaze.htm The Morris water maze Wee rat! http://www.ratbehavior.org/RatsAndMa zes.htm http://btc.bol.ucla.edu/id27.htm Questions from a Water Maze? • Spatial learning, place learning, cognitive maps and memory • Behavioral neuroscience http://www.ratbehavior.or g/RatsAndMazes.htm MI State Work • Kind thanks to Dr. J. Siegford, MSU • Three abstracts – Acute stress impairs spatial learning and social recognition in early-weaned pigs. AS Souza, K Laughlin, JM Siegford, AJ Zanella. – Maze Task’s Effect on Salivary Cortisol of Pigs at Weaning and on Subsequent Fear Response. JM Siegford, G Rucker, AJ Zanella – Correlating spatial learning, social recognition, and aggression in young pigs. JM Siegford, AS Souza, J Jansen, AJ Zanella • Two Powerpoints • Please review these after this lecture Aversion Full paper on the class home page for you…. Information on the following slides from: Using Aversion Learning Techniques to Assess the Mental State, Suffering and Welfare of Farm Animals: J. Rushen J. Anim. Sci. 1996: 74:1990-1995 Aversion – the background • Emphasis is upon understanding the structural basis of consciousness • Emphasis is upon understanding the function of mental states • Humans suffering – Pain, Rushen, 1996 – Fear, – Boredom, – Anxiety, – Hunger. • Similar logic can be applied to measure suffering in animals • Animals can learn to predict, from certain cues or signals, how they are to be handled, and then show some aversion to these signals Social learning – Rushen 1986 Pushes AVERSION….. 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 1 2 3 4 5 Attempts No Restraint Shear 6 7 Factors that affect memory • Factors that could affect memory or learning ability need to be carefully controlled • Horses - learning • Cattle – learning in a chute Rushen, 1996 Punishment • The animal is punished for performing a particular behavior • The aversiveness of the treatment is shown by the extent that the animal stops performing that particular behavior • “Avoidance” learning” the animal must learn to perform a behavior in order to avoid the treatment • Often avoidance-learning procedures are not reliable Rushen, 1996 SO…. A common method of determining the relative aversion of handling methods is to allow the animals to choose between them Rushen, 1996 Free choice vs. Forced choice • Sheep in a Y-maze (Rushen 1986a) • Choice procedures may allow us to rank one or more handling methods in terms of the animal’s preference, but alone they do not allow us to say that a handling method is aversive • To determine the degree of aversion, it is necessary to make animals pay some “cost”, for example loss of access to food, in order to avoid the procedures (Rushen, 1986c) Rushen, 1996 Advantages of aversion learning techniques • More useful than traditional behavioral measures when widely different handling procedures are compared • More able than physiological measures to discriminate among different handling methods • More easily interpretable than either physiological or other behavioral measures Rushen, 1996 Examples of using aversion testing Electo-immobilization • “Studies using aversion-learning techniques, however, clearly showed that electro immobilization was more aversive than physical restraint for both cattle (Pascoe, 1986) and sheep (Grandin et al., 1986; Rushen, 1986d; Rushen and Congdon, 1986).” Rushen, 1996 Windowless Ewes discriminate between alleys by six 4- x 40-cm yellow tape strips 3 cm apart (vertical on the electroimmobilizer side, horizontal on the other) were placed just past the Y's fork on panels on both sides of both alleys. Human – Animal Relationships • “Many of the handling treatments that animals find aversive are performed by humans • Gonyou et al. (1986) showed that pigs that were handled pleasantly (i.e., stroked and petted) had higher growth rates than pigs handled unpleasantly (shocked) • Dairy farmers who touch and speak to their cows more often tend to have higher-producing cows, and the higher-producing cows allow the farmers to approach more closely, suggesting that they show less aversion to them (Seabrook, 1984) • De Passille´ et al. (1996) specifically examined how young calves learn to associate aversive handling treatments with handlers and how they learn to discriminate between different handlers” Rushen, 1996 Model of human – animal interactions Hemsworth et al., 2003 Caretaker Attitudes Animal Behavior Prod. & Health Fear Stress Handling Effects on Fear Responses Time to interact with human (Hemsworth et al., 1986) 2.5 a b Time, min 2 1.5 c 1 0.5 0 Unpleasant Minimal Pleasant % Pregnant Handling Effects on Gilt Fertility (Pregnancy rate, %; (Hemsworth et al., 1986) 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 87.5 55.6 33.3 Unpleas. Minimal Pleasant Training effects on ppsy (weaned) (McGlone and Blackshaw, 1996) 25 20.9 22.14 20 15 ppsy 10 5 1.24 0 Before After Change Operant Conditioning Learning theory • • • • • • • • • “Different theories of learning: Instincts, Social facilitation, Observation, Formal teaching, Memory, Mimicry, Classical conditioning Operant conditioning (OC)*” http://www.wagntrain.com/OC/ Operant Conditioning • “Operant conditioning is the use of consequences to modify the occurrence and form of behavior • Deals with the modification of voluntary behavior through the use of consequences • Operant conditioning, sometimes called instrumental conditioning or instrumental learning, was first extensively studied by Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949) • Theorized that successful responses, those producing satisfying consequences, were "stamped in" by the experience and thus occurred more frequently • Unsuccessful responses, those producing annoying consequences, were stamped out and subsequently occurred less frequently • In short, some consequences strengthened behavior and some consequences weakened behavior • B. F. Skinner (1904-1990) built upon Thorndike's ideas to construct a more detailed theory of operant conditioning based on reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ What is operant conditioning… • “Term used to describe the effects of the consequences of a particular behavior on the future occurrence of that behavior • Five types of operant conditioning: • Strengthen behavior: – Positive reinforcement, – Negative reinforcement strengthen behavior. • Weaken behavior: – Punishment, – Response cost, – Extinction.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Glossary of terms to help.. • “The technical term for "an event started" or "an item presented" is positive, since it's something that's added to the animal's environment. • The technical term for "an event ended" or "an item taken away" is negative, since it's something that's subtracted from the animal's environment.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Glossary of terms to help.. • “Anything that increases a behavior - makes it occur more frequently, makes it stronger, or makes it more likely to occur - is termed a reinforcer. • Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "starting Something Good" or "ending Something Bad" as something worth pursuing, and they will repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. • These consequences will increase the behaviors that lead to them, so they are reinforcers. These are consequences the animal will work to attain, so they strengthen the behavior.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Glossary of terms to help.. • “Anything that decreases a behavior - makes it occur less frequently, makes it weaker, or makes it less likely to occur - is termed a punisher • Often, an animal (or person) will perceive "ending Something Good" or "starting Something Bad" as something worth avoiding, and they will not repeat the behaviors that seem to cause these consequences. • These consequences will decrease the behaviors that lead to them, so they are punishers.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Positive Reinforcement • “Something Good can start or be presented, so behavior increases = Positive Reinforcement (R+) • A positive or pleasant stimulus is used in the process • The reinforcer is added • In positive reinforcement, a positive reinforcer is added after a response and increases the frequency of the response.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Example… “ dolphin gets a fish for doing a trick. The dog gets a piece of liver for returning when called. The cat gets comfort for sleeping on the bed. The wolf gets a meal for hunting the deer. The dog gets attention from his people when he barks. The dog gets to play in the park for pulling her owner there.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Negative Reinforcement • “Something Bad can end or be taken away, so behavior increases = Negative Reinforcement (R-) • A negative or aversive stimulus is used in the process • The reinforcer is subtracted • In negative reinforcement, after the response the negative reinforcer is removed which increases the frequency of the response” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Examples “The window looking into the other monkey's enclosure is shut when the first monkey bites the trainer The dog is put on leash and taken from the park for coming to the owner when the owner called (this causes the unintentional result of the dog being less likely to respond to the recall) The dolphin trainer walks away with the fish bucket when the dolphin acts aggressive.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Punishment • “Something Bad can start or be presented, so behavior decreases = Positive Punishment (P+) • Something Good can end or be taken away, so behavior decreases = Negative Punishment (P-) • Weakens a behavior by adding a negative stimulus • After a response a negative or aversive stimulus is added which weakens the frequency of the response.” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Examples “The peeing on the rug (by a puppy) is punished with a swat of the newspaper A dog's barking is punished with a startling squirt of citronella” Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Skinner Box Wiepkema, http://www.wikipedia.org/ Schedules of reinforcement • • • • • Four types of reinforcement schedules: Variable ratio Fixed ratio Variable interval Fixed interval http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/c ol/behsys/operant.html Schedules of reinforcement http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/c ol/behsys/operant.html Variable Ratio http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/c ol/behsys/operant.html Fixed Ratio http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/c ol/behsys/operant.html Variable - Interval http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/c ol/behsys/operant.html Fixed Interval Schedule Homework Assignment • I will allocate each of you a paper for you to write your abstract on (1) what this is and (2) the challenges and positives associated with this. • Send you abstracts out to the class by Wednesday 11th April Noon Central • Students to present their abstracts in class on Thursday 12th April 2007 Homework Assignment • Papers can be found on the class home page: – Class home page Name Crystal Lindsey Ashley Justin Paper - subject Position Aversion: Pajor et al., Elevated Plus Maze: Janczak et al., Operant conditioning: Holm et al., T – Maze: Lensink et al., No position this week – please write as the Primary reviewer Homework Assignment • Needed for the abstract – Describe the objective (s) – Brief materials and methods – Detail on the tool or test used (maybe link to a web page if useful) • • • • What does it measure How does it measure? How can the information be downloaded and used? How is the item fixed onto the animals etc., – Identify in your opinion one challenge and one positive for this tool or tests as your conclusion statement Homework assignment • Report the results, and conclusions • Please follow the guidelines for writing style as if you are a PRIMARY Reviewer – these can be found in the class syllabus • Any concerns e-mail me: [email protected] Thanks !