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SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY Fast Track Chapter 13 Bernstein Chapters 17 & 18 ✦ SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY is the study of how our thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced by the real or imagined presence and influence of others ✦ Social psychologists are interested in: ✦ how others affect what an individual does and how he/she thinks and feels ✦ how the individual can influence others SOCIAL INFLUENCES ON THE SELF ✦ SELF-CONCEPT one’s perception of who one is ✦ SELF-ESTEEM how valuable one feels oneself to be ✦ SOCIAL COMPARISON comparing ourselves to those around us as a way of judging/evaluating ourselves ✦ REFERENCE GROUP people we use as a comparison to ourselves and with whom we identify most strongly ✦ RELATIVE DEPRIVATION being denied access to what we feel we are entitled to have ✦ TEMPORAL COMPARISON using our past experiences to judge/evaluate ourselves in the current moment ✦ IN-GROUP a group for which the individual has strong feelings of loyalty, respect, and togetherness due to a common feature ✦ IN-GROUP BIAS showing favoritism toward other members of the in-group based on shared feelings and admiration ✦ OUT-GROUP a group of people who hold beliefs different from those of the individual and toward whom he/she feels animosity ✦ SELF -SCHEMAS mental frameworks/blueprints that people have about themselves ✦ SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY when a person unknowingly behaves in a manner that helps to justify or fulfill an expected outcome PYGMALION EFFECT (TEACHEREXPECTANCY EFFECT) ✦ Robert Rosenthal and Lenore Jacobson experiment on the self-fulfilling prophecy ✦ EXPLAINING BEHAVIOR Social psychologists study ATTRIBUTES (attempts to explain why a person behaves a certain way) as a way of understanding how and why individuals explain their own behaviors as well as the behaviors of others. ✦ ✦ Attribution theories tend to explain behavior as a result of either: ✦ INTERNAL (DISPOSITIONAL) FACTORS behavior that is explained as the result of personal (dispositional) characteristics ✦ EXTERNAL (SITUATIONAL) FACTORS behavior that is explained as a result of unavoidable factors or factors out of one’s control ✦ We ALL use attributes to explain the behaviors of others as well as our own. Errors in Attribution ✦ fundamental attribution error (FAE) the tendency to explain the behavior of others as the result of an internal or dispositional factor ✦ actor-observer bias the tendency to explain the behavior of others as the result of internal or dispositional factors while attributing your behavior to external or situational factors ✦ self-serving bias tendency to attribute success to internal or dispositional factors while blaming any failure on external or situational factors ✦ unrealistic optimism the belief that favorable events are more likely to occur to you than to others ✦ self-handicapping limiting one’s potential for success by offering explanations for failure ATTITUDES ✦ ✦ ATTITUDES are reactions to situations, events, or objects based on previous experiences with them. ✦ affect our everyday lives ✦ include beliefs (cognitions), feelings (emotions/affect), and behaviors that are relatively unchanging ✦ correlation between attitudes and behavior is weak to moderate; knowns as the A-B PROBLEM (one’s attitudes do not necessarily predict future behavior) Forming Attitudes ✦ explained through behaviorism ✦ formed through conditioning (classical or operant) and modeling ✦ mere exposure effect the more a person is subjected to novel stimulus, the more he or she will grow to enjoy the stimulus; shaping attitudes by repeated exposure ATTITUDES ✦ Changing Attitudes ✦ ✦ ELABORATION LIKELIHOOD MODEL OF PERSUASION ✦ central route to persuasion involves a careful examination of the message to determine the validity of the argument ✦ peripheral route to persuasion involves the use of outside factors to influence the validity of the argument ✦ SEE VIDEO COGNITIVE DISSONANCE discomfort resulting from conflicting cognitions and behaviors; tension between what we THINK and what we DO ✦ ways to reduce the discomfort of cognitive dissonance; ✦ change attitude ✦ justify behavior ✦ change behavior ✦ SEE VIDEO PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES ✦ PREJUDICE a positive or negative belief about a category of people; refers to prejudging a person because or she belongs to a specific group; making a judgment before knowing all the facts ✦ STEREOTYPING the generalization of a particular group of people based on a preexisting concept or image; involves generalizing an attitude toward a larger segment of the population ✦ DISCRIMINATION differing treatment toward a category of people, typically people of a different ethnicity, religion, or gender; may involve preferential treatment of some good or service to a group of people ✦ Factors influencing prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination... SEE HANDOUT ✦ Philip Zimbardo on Social Reality, Prejudice, and Discrimination PREJUDICE AND STEREOTYPES ✦ PREJUDICE a positive or negative belief about a category of people; refers to prejudging a person because or she belongs to a specific group; making a judgment before knowing all the facts ✦ STEREOTYPING the generalization of a particular group of people based on a preexisting concept or image; involves generalizing an attitude toward a larger segment of the population ✦ DISCRIMINATION differing treatment toward a category of people, typically people of a different ethnicity, religion, or gender; may involve preferential treatment of some good or service to a group of people ✦ Factors influencing prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination... SEE HANDOUT ✦ Philip Zimbardo on Social Reality, Prejudice, and Discrimination ✦ Muzafer Sherif and the Robbers Cave Experiment (1954) on prejudice ✦ increased competition between the two groups led to increased feelings of ill will, prejudice, and discrimination ✦ prejudiced reduced when difficult challenges requiring cooperation between the groups were successfully completed CONFORMITY AND COMPLIANCE ✦ CONFORMITY a change in behavior due to real or imagined group pressure ✦ COMPLIANCE changing behavior due to a direct request ✦ What’s the difference between conformity and compliance? ✦ ✦ Most of us conform daily by following along with society’s SOCIAL NORMS (implicit and explicit rules that guide daily behavior and are based on societal expectancies). ✦ ✦ e.g., facing forward and not talking on an elevator To maintain social norms, RECIPROCITY (responding to a behavior with the same behavior) is often used. This also helps maintain social order ✦ ✦ Conformity occurs when people simply go along with the crowd. Compliance involves a specific request for behavior change. e.g., someone holds the door for you, you hold the door for the person behind you Solomon Asch and the Conformity Study (1950s) ✦ CONFEDERATES subjects unknown to the actual participants in an experiment assigned by the researched to influence the experiment OBEDIENCE AND THE POWER THE SITUATION ✦ OF OBEDIENCE agreeing to an explicit or implicit request because it came from a person of perceived authority; one of the ways society functions smoothly ✦ 3 main factors affecting obedience: 1. status or prestige of the person giving the order 2. the behavior of others in the same situation 3. the personal characteristics of the individual ✦ Stanley Milgram’s Obedience to Authority Experiment (1963) ✦ ✦ found participants would follow instructions when reassured by a perceived authority figure they would not be held responsible for the results of the actions being ordered (65% of Milgram’s participants followed orders completely) THE POWER OF THE SITUATION ✦ Philip Zimbardo’s Prison Experiment (1971) ✦ proved that context, or situation, can and will influence behavior of the individual AGGRESSION ✦ AGGRESSION any act that is intended to cause harm to another; found in every species ✦ PSYCHODYNAMIC PERSPECTIVE aggression is instinctive, the unconscious impulse of the id; to redirect these impulses and achieve CATHARSIS (the release of these instinctual aggressive impulses), we engage in socially acceptable alternatives such as football, boxing, NASCAR, etc... ✦ BIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE aggressions results from an innate drive; frontal lobe plays role important role in inhibiting our behavior and damage to it can result in bouts of anger and aggression; limbic system damage may lead to aggressive behavior; higher levels of testosterone increase aggressiveness ✦ EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE aggression is innate and serves to further the survival of the species; the more aggressive an organism is, the greater its chances for long-term survival ✦ BEHAVIORAL-COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVE aggression is learned/nurtured; caused by reinforcement as well as through observation and imitation ✦ ENVIRONMENTAL PERSPECTIVE aggression stems from outside factors such as temperature, pollution, and proximity of living arrangements to those of others; increased temperature and pollution as well as more dense living conditions increase aggressive behavior ALTRUISM AND NON-HELPING BEHAVIOR ✦ ALTRUISM a genuine concern for the safety and well-being of another ✦ ✦ Why would a person commit an altruistic act? ✦ arousal cost-reward theory weighing several options in order to reduce the unpleasant feeling associated with seeing a person in distress; the individual weighs the cost associated with helping the other person (cost to other person in need, cost to self) ✦ reciprocal altruism assisting another person with the expectation that person will repay the deed in the future; also known as “tit-for-tat” or summarized by the saying, “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” BYSTANDER EFFECT (BYSTANDER APATHY) when the presence of others inhibits the helping behavior of an individual ✦ diffusion of responsibility not intervening in the presence of others because the person thinks that others are going to intervene in the situation; people feel they cannot personally be held responsible because there are others around ✦ e.g., The Kitty Genovese Murder ALTRUISM AND NON-HELPING BEHAVIOR ✦ ALTRUISM a genuine concern for the safety and well-being of another ✦ ✦ Why would a person commit an altruistic act? ✦ arousal cost-reward theory weighing several options in order to reduce the unpleasant feeling associated with seeing a person in distress; the individual weighs the cost associated with helping the other person (cost to other person in need, cost to self) ✦ reciprocal altruism assisting another person with the expectation that person will repay the deed in the future; also known as “tit-for-tat” or summarized by the saying, “If you scratch my back, I’ll scratch yours.” BYSTANDER EFFECT (BYSTANDER APATHY) when the presence of others inhibits the helping behavior of an individual ✦ diffusion of responsibility not intervening in the presence of others because the person thinks that others are going to intervene in the situation; people feel they cannot personally be held responsible because there are others around ✦ e.g., The Kitty Genovese Murder ALTRUISM AND NON-HELPING BEHAVIOR ✦ ✦ What factors contribute to the bystander effect and diffusion of responsibility? ✦ feelings of incompetence in front of others ✦ may be having a bad day ✦ unfamiliar environment ✦ doesn’t realize the situation is truly an emergency ✦ doesn’t want to be singled out by getting involved How can the bystander effect be countered? ✦ individuals must take charge and assign roles ✦ pointing directly at individuals and assigning specific tasks ensures others will help COOPERATION, COMPETITION, CONFLICT AND ✦ COOPERATION working with another to obtain a desired goal; when a person decides to help another ✦ COMPETITION pursuit of a desired outcome while refuting the same outcome to others; when two groups are vying for the same goal ✦ CONFLICT opposing members of a group being in direct opposition to another group in accomplishing a similar goal SEE HANDOUT GROUP PROCESSES ✦ How group members interact is often the result of leadership style within the group. ✦ A charismatic leader can be motivating whereas a disorganized or reserved leader can be uninspiring. ✦ The group itself may encourage or discourage certain behavior in its members. ✦ LEADERSHIP STYLES ✦ ✦ task-oriented leader strongly direct and are driven by goals and production; usually discourage discussion within the group as this is seen as a distraction to productivity ✦ person-oriented leader concerned more with group harmony than production; typically seek advice from their workers INFLUENCES OF THE GROUP ON BEHAVIOR ✦ social-facilitation, social inhibition (evaluation SEE apprehension), HANDOUT social loafing, group polarization, groupthink, deindividuation...