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Transcript
Social Cognition Social Psychology • Examines the influence of social processes on the way people – Think – Feel – Behave Social Cognition • Social cognition refers to the processes by which people make sense of – Themselves – Social interactions – Relationships Social Cognition • Networks of association – Suggests memories are stored in interconnected nodes. Activation of one node spreads activation to other nodes linked to it through experience – Activate “Notre Dame” and immediately connect the term football Social Cognition • Schemas – Organized patterns of thought that direct attention, memory and interpretation – Activation of the schema “State Trooper” leads to immediately hitting the breaks on your car – Schemas enable us to enter a new situation with some idea of how to behave Social Cognition • Concepts – Mental representations of categories (car) – A novel stimuli involves comparing it to an abstract prototype • Car • Truck • Is an SUV (novel stimuli) a car or a truck First Impressions • Our first impression of someone serves as a benchmark for all future evaluations of the person • First impressions serve as a schema (how to respond) • Halo effect – The tendency to assume that positive qualities cluster together – The halo effect is also referred to as :what is beautiful is good” First Impressions • Physically attractive people are assumed to be: – Warm – Friendly – Intelligent • Those who perceive themselves as attractive tend to report being: – More extroverted – Socially comfortable – Mentally healthy Stereotypes and Prejudice • Stereotypes involve characteristics attributed to people based on their membership in specific groups • Often precludes receptiveness to new information • A rigid schema • Athletes= Not serious about academics • Irish= Drink too much Prejudice & Discrimination • Prejudice – Involves judging people based on stereotypes – A way of thinking • Discrimination – Behaviors that follow from prejudicial evaluations or attitudes – Involves actually doing something Prejudice & Discrimination • We are all prejudice – We prefer those who are similar to ourselves – We prefer the known to the unknown • Our prejudices do not need to dictate our behavior • The more we are aware of our prejudices the better able we are to control for discriminating behavior Authoritarian Personality • Characterized by a tendency to hate people who are different or downtrodden • Those with an authoritarian personality tend to have a dominant, stern and sometimes sadistic father and a submissive mother • Authoritarian individuals tend to displace or project their rage towards their father onto vulnerable groups Subtle Racism • Overt racism is often met with public disapproval • Subtle racism involves desire by racist to express their hatreds in socially acceptable ways – Low expectations of performance – Express more subtle stereotypes Explicit and Implicit Racism • As explicit racism becomes more and more social unacceptable implicit racism becomes more evident • Unconscious slips of the tongue • Harsher criminal sentences for blacks than whites • Whites less helpful to blacks than to whites Prejudice & Social Conditions • Prejudice is more a social condition than a personality dynamic • Prejudice is transmitted from one generation to another within social groups • Prejudicial social attitudes serve to preserve the benefits for the dominant classes – Haves and have-nots tend to differ in color, religion or ethnicity Ingroups & Outgroups • Ingroup – Those who are members of a reference group – Fraternity • Outgroup – Those who are not member of a reference group • Members of an ingroup tend to perceive those who are not as very homogenous Social Identity Theory • Social identity theory suggests we derive part of our identity from the groups to which we belong • Suggests that we will strive to maintain positive feelings about the ingroup and negative feelings for the outgroup • Hatred towards the outgroup can become an important part of our identity – I exist to hate them Attributions • Attribution – The process of inferring the causes of one’s own and others’ mental states and behaviors – Why did I do that – Why did s/he say that – We constantly think about the “whys” of our social interactions External v. Internal Attributions • External attributions – The situation caused (is responsible for) the behavior • Internal attributions – The person is responsible for the behavior • Attributional style – Habitual ways of making attributions – Either external or internal Attributions • Consensus – The way most people respond – External attribution • Consistency – Refers to the way a given individual responds in the same way the same stimulus – Internal attribution – Consistency across time • Distinctiveness – Refers to an individual’s likelihood to respond a given way to many different stimuli – Consistency across situations Attributions • Discounting – Occurs when we discount one variable (internal) because we know that others may be contribution to the behavior in question – Discount partner’s rude behavior due to some circumstance at work • Augmentation – Increase (augment) an internal attribution for behavior despite powerful situational factors Intuitive Science • People base their attributions by observing the covariation of situations, behaviors and specific people • To what extent does the presence of one variable predict the presence of another variable • Intuitive scientists – Our tendency to rely on intuitive theories, frame hypotheses, collect data about ourselves and others, and draw conclusion as best we can Correspondence Bias • Tendency to assume other people’s behavior corresponds to their internal states rather than external situations – Assume internal attributions rather than possible external causes • Also known as the fundamental attribution error Self-Serving Bias • Our tendency to see ourselves in a more positive light than others see us • Our need for self-enhancement tends to blur our objectivity • More prevalent in Western individualist focused societies Faulty Cognitions • Cognitive Bias – Stereotyping – Similar to the availability heuristic • Motivational Bias – We base our attributions to meet our needs, wishes and goals • Confirmation bias – Our tendency to seek out information that confirms one’s hypotheses Attitudes • Attitude – An association between an act or object and an evaluation of the act or object • Attitude strength – Durability & impact of an attitude on behavior • Attitude importance – Degree of importance of the act or object • Attitude accessibility – The ease with which an attitude comes to mind Attitudes • Explicit attitudes – We are consciously aware of our attitude • Implicit attitudes – Regulate thought and behavior at an unconscious level. We respond automatically Attitudes • Attitude ambivalence – Degree to which an object generates conflicting attitudes • Attitude coherence – Degree to which an attitude is internally consistent Attitudes and Behavior • Attitudes do not accurately predict behavior – A positive attitude towards exercise doesn’t necessarily translate into one actually exercising • Specific attitudes predict behavior much better than generalized attitudes – Brand specificity Attitudes and Behavior • Attitudes are only one factor among many that influence behavior – I have a favorable attitude towards mushrooms but would never eat them around my friends • Attitudes will better predict behavior if members of one’s reference group share the attitudes • Implicit attitudes impact behavior in ways a person is unaware of Attitudes and Behavior • Strongly held attitudes predict behavior better than attitudes that generate less passion • Attitudes acquired through personal experience are more likely to influence behavior than attitudes acquired on more abstract levels Persuasion • Persuasion – Involves a deliberate efforts to change an attitude • Components of persuasion – Credible source (expert knowledge) – Message • Receptiveness of receiver to the message • Fear appeals Attitudes and Behavior • Components of persuasion – Channel • Words/images • Medium – Context • Background setting for delivering message • Politicians use of the national flag at events – Receiver • Strength of attitude by the receiver • Need for cognition Elaboration Model • The Elaboration Likelihood Model of Persuasion suggests that knowing how to appeal to people requires figuring out the likelihood that they will think about (evaluate) the arguments presented • Central Route – Appeals to those who think carefully about the message • Volvo adds that focus on safety • Peripheral Route – Appeals to those less likely to think carefully about the message • Ford Mustang adds that focus on sex appeal Cognitive Dissonance • Cognitive dissonance refers to a perceived difference between – An attitude and a behavior – An attitude and a new piece of information • When cognitive dissonance occurs something has to give – Change attitude – Change behavior Cognitive Dissonance • Dissonance reduction – Involves our efforts to reduce cognitive dissonance • Self-perception theory – Suggests that individuals infer their attitudes, emotions, and other internal states by observing their own behavior Cognitive Dissonance • Self-presentation theory – Suggests that what appear to be changes in attitudes are really only changes in reported attitudes • I’m saying what you want to hear • Dissonance and culture – May be a distinctively Western culture way of thinking The Self & Self-Concept • Self – The person including mental processes, body and personality characteristics • Self-concept – A person’s concept of herself, a schema that guides the way we think about and remember information relevant to ourselves Self-Esteem • Self-esteem – A person’s evaluation of himself, how much he likes and respects the self • General • Specific • Self-handicapping – The process by which we set ourselves up to fail when success is uncertain – A means to preserve our self-esteem – Success would mean one is worthy, thus impacting one’s low self-esteem Self-Consistency • Refers to consistency of feedback of either a positive or negative nature • Those with low self-esteem tend to avoid those who speak positive of them • Positive remarks creates cognitive dissonance with their low self-esteem Self-Presentation (Impression Management) • Refers to how we present ourselves to others • Involves dress, language, and other behaviors • Self-presentation predicaments – Situations that threaten the image we would like to project • Changing presentation for a job interview Self-monitoring • Refers to the individual differences in how well we manage our self-presentations • High self-monitors – Carefully read and respond to social settings • Low self-monitors – Do not read social settings very well Self-concepts • Actual self – Our views of how we actually are • Ideal self – Hopes, aspirations, and wishes that define the way we would like to be • Ought self – Duties, obligations, and responsibilities that define the way the person should be