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Cardiovascular System (Circulatory System) Blood From the Body Deoxygenated blood enters the RIGHT ATRIUM from the VENA CAVA Atrium Contracts forcing the blood through the TRICUSPID VALVE Into the RIGHT VENTRICLE Ventricle contracts pushing blood through SEMILUNAR VALVE Blood flows through either the RIGHT or LEFT PUMONARY ARTERY Click here for a Flash version of this illustration. A heartbeat is a two-part pumping action that takes about a second. As blood collects in the upper chambers (the right and left atria), the heart's natural pacemaker (the SA node) sends out an electrical signal that causes the atria to contract. This contraction pushes blood through the tricuspid and mitral valves into the resting lower chambers (the right and left ventricles). This part of the two-part pumping phase (the longer of the two) is called diastole. The second part of the pumping phase begins when the ventricles are full of blood. The electrical signals from the SA node travel along a pathway of cells to the ventricles, causing them to contract. This is called systole. As the tricuspid and mitral valves shut tight to prevent a back flow of blood, the pulmonary and aortic valves are pushed open. While blood is pushed from the right ventricle into the lungs to pick up oxygen, oxygen-rich blood flows from the left ventricle to the heart and other parts of the body. After blood moves into the pulmonary artery and the aorta, the ventricles relax, and the pulmonary and aortic valves close. The lower pressure in the ventricles causes the tricuspid and mitral valves to open, and the cycle begins again. This series of contractions is repeated over and over again, increasing during times of exertion and decreasing while you are at rest. The heart normally beats about 60 to 80 times a minute when you are at rest, but this can vary. As you get older, your resting heart rate rises. Also, it is usually lower in people who are physically fit. Blood Enters the Lungs Enters the Lung (either right or left lung) Blood is deoxygenated Oxygenation is accomplished in the air sacs of the lungs at the same time the CO2 is being expelled Oxygenated Blood is returned to heart via RIGHT or Left Pulmonary Vein. This is the only place where a vein carries oxygenated blood Oxygenated Blood from the Lungs Enter the LEFT ATRIUM which contracts Blood is pushed through the BICUSPID Valve Blood enters the Left Ventricle Ventricle acts as the pump for the newly oxygenated blood Blood is sent through the AORTIC SEMILUNAR VALVE Blood then flows from the heart via the AORTA Coronary Circulation Myocardium must have blood to sustain is pumping Right and Left Coronary arteries branch off the AORTA just above the heart Branches of these arteries encircle the heart muscle delivering O2 and nutrients Deoxygenated blood from these arteries return via CORONARY VEINS to RIGHT ATRIUM Deoxygenated blood enters the atrium via the CORONARY SINUS Systemic Circulation Oxygenated blood leaves the heart via the AORTA As it leaves the anterior portion of the heart it forms the AORTIC ARCH Circulation to Head Arteries of the Head and Upper Torso Ascending Aorta AORTIC ARCH branches into 3 Main arteries carry blood to arms, neck and head Left Common Carotid Artery Brachiocephalic Artery – Right Common Carotid, Right Subclavian Left Subclavian Artery – left axillary, left brachial Descending Aorta Coronary Artery – feeding the heart More Branches feeding the body wall, stomach, intestines, liver, etc. THORACIC AORTA ABDOMINAL AORTA ETC. Types of Vessels Types of Vessels Arteries carry oxygenated blood away from the heart (one exception) BLOOD FLOW THROUGH VESSELS Arteries Transport blood under high pressure Walls are elastic, muscular and thick 3 layers from interior to exterior Tunica interna, media, and externa Arteries branch into arterioles Arterioles give rise to capillaries Types of Vessels Capillaries Capillaries Smallest of blood vessels – microscopic Connect arterioles to venules Walls thin to allow selective permeability of various cells and substances – Nutrients and O2 pass out to surrounding tissue Waste CO2 and metabolic waste may enter to be excreted Tiny opens allow WBC to leave the bloodstream and enter tissue to help destroy invading bacteria Plasma;a diffuses out of the bloodstream and into tissue spaces (interstitial fluid) that is returned to the bloodstream in the form of lymph via lymph vessels Diameter so small RBC “march” single file Types of Vessels Veins Carry deoxygenated blood and other waste products for excretion Veins Veins similar is size to arteries Less elastic and muscular Walls much thinner – blood pressure lower Thin walls – will collapse easily when not filled with blood Contain one – way valves – prevent reflux or back flow of blood More valves in lower extremities because of gravity Skeletal muscle also assist in Venous return Venous blood returns to the heart via the Superior and Inferior Vena Cava Blood Pressure Heart Pumps Blood into Arteries Surge creates pressure on artery walls Pressure at the moment of ventricular contraction is the systolic pressure Average Systolic Pressure 120 mm/Hg Lessened pressure at ventricular relaxation is diastolic pressure Average Diastolic Pressure 80mm/Hg 120/80 BLOOD PRESSURE DISORDERS Hypertension – “High Blood” – When BP is constantly greater than 140/90 Sometimes called the SILENT KILLER Leads to strokes, heart disease and kidney failure Treated with diet, medication and weight loss 1 out of 5 American have hypertension Hypotension – “Low Blood” –When Systolic BP is constantly lower than 100mm/Hg Treated with fluids, medication Disorders of Blood Vessels Aneurysm – ballooning out of an artery – thinning wall and weakening of the blood vessel Sometimes pain and pressure sometimes no symptoms Sometime surgically corrected Rupture can be life threatening if in brain or a large vessel like abdominal aorta Arteriosclerosis Artery walls thicken – loss of elasticity usually due to old age Narrowing of artery – interfering with blood supply Can cause hypertension or cardiac infarct Atherosclerosis Deposits of fatty substances form along the walls of the arteries Narrowing of artery – interfering with blood supply Can cause hypertension or cardiac infarct Gangrene Death of body tissue due to insufficient blood supply caused by disease (diabetes) or injury Pain and darkening skin and underlying tissue Attempt to treat with antibiotics Usually must amputate affected area Phlebitis Inflammation of the lining of a vein, accompanied by clotting of blood in the vein Symptoms can include edema, pain and redness Treat with medication, elevation and elastic stockings Embolism Traveling blood clot Pulmonary embolism is clot in lung that can cause respiratory arrest Varicose Veins Swollen veins resulting from slowing down of blood flow back to heart Blood backs up; distending the vein and valves Usually caused by hereditary weakness Age and pregnancy Hemorrhoids Varicose veins in the walls of the lower rectum and the tissues around the anus Cerebral hemorrhage Bleeding from blood vessels with the brain Can be caused by arteriosclerosis, disease, aneurysm, or injury Can cause permanent damage to brain tissue and/or death Peripheral Vascular Disease Blockage of arteries usually in legs Symptoms – pain and cramping in the legs or buttocks while walking – claudicating Must be treated or can progress where amputation is necessary Treatments: medication, diet Transient Ischemic Attacks (TIA) Temporary interruption of the blood flow (ischemia) to the brain or part of the brain Can be caused by narrowing of carotid artery Symptoms include dizziness, weakness or temporary paralysis Cerebral Vascular Accident (CVA) Stroke Sudden interruption of blood supply to the brain Loss of O2 to brain causing impairment of the brain tissue and/or death 3rd leading cause of death in US Risk factors include smoking, hypertension, heart disease and family HX 90% are caused by blood clots 10% by bleeding into brain when vessel ruptures TYPES OF STROKE ISCHAEMIC STROKE HAEMORRHAGIC STROKE Conduction of the Heart Cardiac Cycle – one complete heart beat Conduction System of the Heart Heart Rate (HR) Heart must contract rhythmically Each cycle or beat is about 0.8 seconds Average rate of heart in an adult is 72-75 beats/min Tachycardia – fast rate – usually over 100 Bradycardia – slow rate – usually under 60 SA Node – Pacemaker of the Heart Conduction System initiates beats in intrinsic by distributing electrical impulses Begins with the SA (Sinoatrial) node Located in the superior wall of right atrium Send the beginning of the electrical impulse over both atria causing them to contract simultaneously Causes blood to flow downward from upper atrial chamber to AV opening Bicuspid and Tricuspid valves open Conduction System Semilunar valves closed at this time - no blood to enter the pulmonary artery or aorta Ventricles will relax at this time allowing them to fill with blood Brief pause to allow atria time to complete contraction Depolarizes the AV (atrioventricular) node AV Node Located in the lower portion of the right atrium AV node stimulates contraction of both ventricles Contraction start at the apex and moves toward the atria Send impulse down Bundle of His through the ventricular septum Bundle divides in right and left branch that further subdivide sending messages up the ventricular walls by way of the Purkinje fiber network Semilunar valves open allowing blood to move into the lungs via the pulmonary artery and out to body via aorta Atrium then relax and AV valves close Cycle continues Ventricles relax Semilunar valves closed to prevent the blood flowing back in to the ventricles SA Node signals again Conduction Defects Electricity gone haywire Conduction Abnormalities Heart Block – AV damage – SA impulse doesn’t reach ventricle – ventricles will beat at their own rate – slower Damage to SA node – slower heart rate – sometimes need artificial pacemaker – defibrillation or “shocking” patient Ischemia can lead to Fibrillation – rapid uncoordinated shuddering of heart muscle Cardiac arrest – stopping of conduction Neural Control Autonomic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System Heart enervated by autonomic nervous system – controls speed of contractions Sympathetic NS will speed it up temporarily In times of physical or emotional stress Will increase availability of O2 and glucose to cells Parasympathetic NS will slow it temporarily Primarily the vagus nerve Hormones and Ions Hormone Thyroxine and epinephrine can also increase heart rate Ions Low calcium – depresses the heart Too much calcium can stop the heart Low K+ causes feeble or abnormal beating Low Na+ depress heart Other Factors faster in babies – gradually decreases through out life in normal heart Age- Gender – faster in females Temperature – fever and exercise increase HR due to increase in metabolic rates; cold decreases HR Medication – chemically stimulating or decreasing heart; intentional or side affect Diet – digestion increase HR Cardiac Cycle Mid to late Diastole We will begin with the heart at complete relaxation Pressure in heart is low Blood flowing passively into atrium from the pulmonary and systemic systems Semilunar valves closed AV valves open Atria contract and force blood into ventricles Cardiac Cycle Ventricular Systole Shortly the ventricles will begin to contract and pressure increases rapidly Pressure closes AV valves When intraventricular pressure higher than in large vessels leaving heart - semilunar valves open Blood rushes out of ventricles to vessels Atria will be relaxed at this time and their chambers are filling Cardiac Cycle Early Diastole At the end of Systole ventricles relax Semilunar valves snap shut – preventing black flow Intraventricular pressure drops AV valves forced open Ventricles beginning to refill rapidly Cycle complete Cardiac Cycle Normally atria contract simultaneously as the ventricles relax Ventricles contract while atria relax Diastole – phase of relaxation Systole – phase of contraction One cycle consists of systole and diastole of both atria and the systole and diastole of both ventricles Timing Cycle lasts 0.8 seconds First 0.1 seconds, the atria contract and ventricles relax 0.3 seconds atria are relaxing and ventricles contracting Last 0.4 seconds is quiescent period – all chambers in diastole – heart resting Heart Sounds First sound – Lub – is closing of the AV valves – louder and stronger sound Second sound – dup – closing of the semilunar valves at the end of systole – sound tends to be short and sharp Pause Heard with stethoscope Heart Murmurs Abnormal or unusual heart sounds Blood flow silent unless strikes obstruction Fairly common in children and elderly Usually indicate valve problems Medication can help some Surgery required in severe cases Blood Pressure Pressure exerted at moment of contraction of ventricles – Systolic Blood Pressure – top number Lessened force of the blood when ventricles relax – Diastolic Blood Pressure – bottom number Pressure highest in the arteries close to initial surge of blood and gradually decreases as it it travels further from heart Average BP in adult is 120mmHg/80mmHg Directly related to CO and peripheral resistance Blood Pressure Peripheral Resistance – amount of friction encountered by the blood as it flows through the blood vessels Increase by constriction of blood vessels-by SNS or atherosclerosis Increased by increased blood volume or blood viscosity Blood Pressure ANS – sympathetic division causes vasoconstriction Loss of blood Gravity after sitting or laying down and rising suddenly Exercise – vasoconstriction except in muscles vasodilatation Never cause vasoconstriction of blood vessels in heart or brain Blood Pressure Kidneys – alters blood volume Increases liquids excretion when BP goes up – decrease blood volume – decrease BP Temperature – cold causes vasoconstriction Chemicals Epinephrine – increase HR – increases BP Nicotine – increases HR – increases vasoconstriction - Increases BP Alcohol – vasodilator – decrease BP Blood Pressure Disorders Hypotension – low BP Systolic below 100 Usually no cause for concern under normal circumstances Orthostatic hypotension – postural changes – increase with old age Chronic Low BP can indicate poor nutrition and inadequate levels of blood proteins Circulatory Shock- not enough blood volume in vessels Blood Pressure Disorders Hypertension – high blood pressure Pathologic – sustained BP of 140/90 or higher People can be asymptomatic for first 10-20 years – slowly causing unknown damage – silent killer Increase resistance causes heart to work harder – over stretching the heart muscle Can be affected by diet, obesity, heredity, race and stress Pulse Pulse throbs at pressure points throughout body Alternating expansion and contraction of an artery as blood flows through it Brachial- near crook of elbow Common carotid – neck Dorsalis pedis – anterior foot Temporal – temples on sides of face Radial - wrist Femoral – groin Popliteal – behind knee Posterior tibial - ankle Cardiac Output - CO Amount of blood pumped out of each side of the heart in one minute Product of the heart rate (HR) and the stroke volume (SV) CO = HR X SV Stoke Volume is amount of blood pumped out of ventricles with each contraction Normal CO = HR (75b/m) X SV (70 ml/beat) CO = 75 X 70 CO = 5250 ml/min Cardiac Output Average adult has 5000 ml of blood in the entire system Entire volume of blood passes through the heart (therefore through the body) in 1 minute Cardiac Output will vary with demands Increase with increase volume Increases with increased rate Cardiac Output Stroke Volume – volume of blood pumped from the ventricles with each contraction Healthy heart pumps 60% of the blood that enters it – 70 ml or 2 ounces – with each contraction CO – Starling’s Law of the Heart SV controlled by how much the cardiac muscle cells are stretched just before they contract Increased stretching = stronger contraction Amount of stretching affected by venous return- amount of blood entering Stroke Volume Things that affects it Slow heart rate allows more time for filling and stretching Strong contracting of skeletal muscles affecting venous return – exercise Rapid heart rate decreases filling time Severe blood loss lowers venous return Cardiac muscle weakening or damage decrease SV Heart will try to maintain CO by increasing HR Pumping Efficiency Problems Congestive Heart Failure – efficiency is decreased so that circulation is inadequate to meet tissue demands Usually progressive Weakening of heart muscle due to MI, arteriosclerosis or persistent hypertension Pulmonary congestion occurs when left heart fails – can lead to pulmonary edema Peripheral congestion when right side fails If one side fails more stress to other side can lead to total heart failure Disease of the Heart Cardiovascular Disease Infections/Inflammations Pericarditis Infection in the pericardium – the outer layer of the heart Symptoms include pain, cough, dyspnea, rapid pulse and fever Myocarditis Treated with medications Inflammation of the cardiac muscle Symptoms and treatment same as pericarditis Infections/Inflammations Endocarditis Inflammation of membrane lining the heart and covering valves Can lead to blood clot Can lead to valve difficulties Rheumatic Heart Disease Antibodies fighting rheumatic fever or strep throat can attack the valves and the lining of the heart Can cause valves to stop closing properly Coronary Artery Disease Angina pectoris Severe chest pain caused by not enough O2 to heart myocardium Not a disease but symptoms of narrowing of coronary arteries Treat with medication – nitroglycerine – to dilate arteries Secondary with by-pass surgery Myocardial Infarction MI or Heart attack – lack of blood supply to heart muscle causing death of tissue Can be caused by narrowing of arteries or blood clot Amount of damage will determine mortality and/or resulting long term problems Prevention is the best treatment After damage done- medication can strengthen contraction and or dissolve clots Cardiac Surgery Invasive Treatment Angioplasty “balloon surgery” Small deflated balloon threaded into coronary artery to reach blockage Balloon inflated to push blockage against artery wall Balloon deflated and removed If doesn’t work by-pass surgery may be needed Stints Small device threaded into coronary arty to try to hold the vessel open after successful angioplasty Not always successful long term Tries to prevent Heart Attacks or MI from reoccurring Coronary Artery By-Pass Surgery to detour or by pass the blockage in a coronary artery Healthy blood vessel used Not as successful in increasing longevity as once thought Heart Transplants Individual’s heart can no longer function properly Due to damage or disease or in some congenital heart defect Must “match” body tissue to prevent rejection by the recipient's own body Donor must “die” for someone needs a transplant Artificial Hearts Last ditch effort Used only for short periods of time until a donor heart can be found Pacemaker and Implantable Defibrillator Pacemaker to take over the work of the SA node Defibrillator – implanted to shock heart back into a regular rhythm – for those at risk or have a history of ventricular tachycardia Blood The River of Life Blood Specialized connective tissue Pumped by the heart Carried by the blood vessels Composed of: Blood cells Plasma Platelets Blood Transports O2 to cells for metabolism Transports CO2 back to lungs Carries nutrients, ions and water from the digestive tract to all cells Transports waste for cells to sweat glands and kidneys for excretion Transports hormones from endocrine glands to target organs Transports enzymes to cells to regulate chemical processes and chemical reactions Helps regulate pH through buffers and amino acids Helps regulate body temperature by helping to regulate H2O content of cells through Na ions (osmosis) Clotting mechanism helps prevent fluid loss Helps protect the body from foreign microorganisms and toxins Blood Cells - Erythrocytes Red Blood cells – contain no nucleus 95% of blood volume Hematopoiesis – formation – in red bone marrow Come from stem cells – live for about 120 days Appear as biconcave discs- edges thicker than center Composed of: 1. Protein (stoma& cytoplasm) 2. Lipids including cholesterol 3. Hemoglobin Erythrocytes - Hemoglobin Combine with O2 in the lungs and transport it to various tissues Combine with CO2 in tissues and transport it to the lungs for expulsion Hemoglobin is a protein – globin and a pigment – heme Heme combines with O2 – Globin combines with CO2 Normal Hemoglobin blood level is 4.8 million RBCS/mm3 in women to 5.4 in men Blood Cells - Leukocytes White Blood Cells Contain no pigment and have a nucleus General function – combat inflammation and infection Larger than RBC Have ability to leave blood and move into tissue 5000 – 90000/mm3 Live only a few days normally but only a few hours during an infection 2 sub categories – granular and non-granular Leukocytes - Granular Neutrophils – most common leukocytes Most active Move into cells and phagocytize (consume) foreign substances and secrete lysozyme which helps destroy certain bacteria Pus consists of dell debris, fluid and dead neutrophils Leukocytes - Granular Eosinophils – combat irritants, such as pollen that cause allergies Produce antihistamines Also can attack some worm parasites Leukocytes - Granular Basophiles – combat irritants Release heparin (an anticoagulant) histamine (an inflammatory substance) and serotonin (vasoconstrictor) into the tissues Leukocytes – Non - Granular Monocytes – phagocytotic Largest leukocytes When they leave the blood they increase in size Phagocytize bacteria, dead cells and/or cellular debris Non Granular Lymphocytes – involved in production of antibodies Play a crucial role in the immune system’s response Smallest of leukocytes Involved in controlling cancer cells, destroying microorganisms and rejecting foreign tissue implants Blood Cells - Thrombocytes Platelets Disc shaped cellular fragments with a nucleus Prevent fluid loss when blood vessels are damaged by clotting Life span about 1 week Produced by red bone marrow Plasma Fluid part of the blood 91% of plasma is water 7% proteins- albumin and fibrinogen and globulins Rest is solutes such as ions, nutrients, waste products, gases, enzymes and hormones Albumin Initiates osmotic pressure Helps control water balance between blood and tissues Plasma Proteins - Globulins Some act as transport molecules for hormones and carry them to target organs Some are antibodies – important in the immune system Plasma Proteins - Fibrinogen Vital in blood clotting Clotting of the Blood Coagulation – the process of the clotting of the blood Must occur to stop bleeding Unnecessary clotting can clog a vessel Clotting of the Blood Vessel damage – leakage occurs Thromboplasin produced (needs Vit K) As blood platelets flow over the roughened area they disintegrate, releasing thromboplasin Thromboplasin + Ca = Thrombin Thrombin + fibrinogen = fibrin Fibrin are gel-like threads that layer themselves over the cut, creating meshlike network Network traps RBC, platalets and plasma creating a blood clot Serum oozes out of the cut – slowly drying creating a crust (scab) over the treads Clotting time is 5-15 min in adults Blood Types 4 major types – A, B, AB and O Blood type is inherited Determined by the presence or absence of the blood glyoprotein called antigen located on the surface of the RBC A has A antigen B has B antigen AB has both O has neither Blood Groups - Antibodies Protein in the plasma called antibody A has “b” antibodies B has “a” antibodies AB has no antibodies O has both Blood Types Important to know type when receiving transfusion Antibodies can react with antigens of the same type – clumping of blood cells A must receive A or O blood B must receive B or O blood AB can receive all types O can donate to all types (universal donor) Rh factor Antigen found on the surface of the RBC If someone has it they say they are Rh+ If someone does not have it Rh Important to know in transfusions Important to know if Mother is Rh- and unborn baby is Rh+ Blood Disorders Blood types Blood Disorders - Hemophilia Hereditary disorder Blood clots slowly or abnormally Only in males Can be treated with clotting factors Avoid trauma Blood Disorders - Leukemia Cancerous or malignant condition Abnormally high production of WBC that do not fight infection Displace the normal # of RBC- thus interfering with amount of O2 circulating in the blood Treatment – radiation, and/or chemotherapy Blood Disorders - Anemia Deficiency of RBC and amount of hemoglobin Varying degree of dyspnea, pallor, palpitations and fatigue Can be caused by bleeding or extreme destruction of malformation of RBC Types: Pernicious – Vit B-12 deficiency Aplastic – bone marrow doesn’t produce enough RBC and WBC Sickle Cell Disease Chronic disease inherited from both parents RBC form in crescent shapes that carry less O2 Almost exclusively in blacks Treatment drugs and transfusions Sickle Cell Trait is when only one parent is affected Blood Disorders - Septicemia Presence of a pathogen or toxin in the blood Blood infection Treated with antibiotics Can cause death if untreated or not treated quickly enough Blood Disorders - Thalassemia Also called Cooley’s anemia Defect in RBC formation Fatigue, enlarged spleen, bone deformaties Medication and transfusions Affects blacks and Mediteranian descent Blood Disorders - Malaria Infectious disease Caused by protozoan parasite Tropical climates – by mosquito Cause symptoms of anemia, tachycardia, fever, chills, nausea flu like symptoms, and coma and death Blood Disorders - Mononucleosis Mono – Kissing Disease – Glandular Fever Caused by Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) Symptoms fever, malaise, sore throat, enlarged glands Increase number of WBC - lymphocytes Spread by person-to-person contact Saliva is the primary method of transmitting Coughing or sneezing, causing small droplets of infected saliva and/or mucus to be suspended in the air which can be inhaled by others. Sharing food or beverages from the same container or utensil Can lead to liver damage or spleen rupture Interaction with Other Body Systems Integumentary Blood flows to the skin to aid in the temperature control for the body Blood flow to skin brings O2 and nutrients to and are moves wastes from skin and glands Dilation of vessels in the dermis occurs when we are embarrassed; resulting in “blushing” Skin absorbs sunlight to indirectly allow for the production of Ca needed in muscular contraction of the heart Muscular System Exercising muscles receive increase blood flow delivering O2 and nutrients and removing wastes Cardiac and smooth muscles contractions maintain blood flow and blood pressure Exercise helps prevent cardiovascular disease Diaphragm contraction allows breathing sending O2 to lung for blood to pick it up for delivery to body Heart is a muscle Blood delivers O2 and nutrients for health and function of muscles and connective tissues Skeletal System Bones store and release calcium to maintain blood levels – cardiac muscle needs Ca to contract Bones are site of hematopoisesis Bones (sternum and ribs) protect the heart Long bones protect important arteries Blood provides O2 and nutrients for health and function of the bones and removal of wastes Nervous System Brain and spinal cord depend on blood flow for survival ANS regulates heartbeat and blood pressure Pain felt in “heart attacks” help send signals to the person that they need to seek medical attention Blood flow aids in waste removal from nervous system cells Respiratory System Respiratory system provides the exchange of O2 and CO2 with the red blood cells Respiratory movements aid in venous blood return to heart Heart provides the O2 and nutrients for health of the respiratory cells and for waste removal Digestive System Digestive system breaks down food and nutrients into forms that can be absorbed and transported in the blood stream Iron and B vitamins are provided by the digestive system for red blood cell formation Heart provides the O2 needed to maintain digestive function and metabolism and for waste removal Reproductive System Increased blood volume allows penis to maintain erection Increased blood volume during sexual arousal in both sexes allow sexual “readiness” Estrogen helps maintain vascular health in females Blood provides O2 and nutrients for health and function of reproductive organs and for waste removal Excretory System Kidneys filter the blood of wastes and excess electrolytes and water Kidneys help control blood volume and blood pressure Blood pressure helps maintain kidney function Blood provides nutrients and O2 for cells of the excretory system and for waste removal Endocrine System Blood stream transports hormones to target sites Epinephrine , thyroxin and antidiuretic hormones effect blood pressure Epinephrine , thyroxin effect heart rate Blood supplies O2 and nutrients for health and function of endocrine glands and for waste removal