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Lecture 8 Pronouns ( II) Objectives: 1. The concord of pronouns (and corresponding determiners) with their antecedents in number , gender and person. 2. The choice of case forms of pronouns Pronouns ( II) In English, personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners have some special forms: person : the first person, the second and the third person) Number: singular and plural form Gender: masculine (father ,brother he ,him); feminine (mother, sister, she ,her); Neuter (desk, ship), and common gender (student, teacher) case : the subjective and the objective case. Pronouns ( II) Possessive pronouns can be divided into determinative genitive pronouns (his , her, its); nominal genitive pronouns (hers , yours) This lecture will deal with the concord of pronouns (and corresponding determiners) with their antecedents in number, gender and person 1. Pronoun concord in number The choice of pronoun number forms is generally determined by the number of its antecedent, that is , a pronoun should agree with its antecedent in number. 1)pronoun concord with every-,some-,any-, no- as antecedent When the antecedent is a compound such as everyone everybody, somebody, someone, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody, the pronoun and the corresponding determiner usually take the singular form. 1)pronoun concord with every-, some-,any-, no- as antecedent Usually we use its masculine gender in singular form: he, his, him, himself. eg: --Anyone can attend the meeting if he is interested. --Everybody talked at the top of his /their voice. --Everyone was clapping his/their hands. --Nobody wants to go there, does he? 1)pronoun concord with every-, some-,any-, no- as antecedent No one can be happy if he doesn’t know how to make himself happy. I shall be glad to help every one of the girls in her studies. I shall be glad to help each of them in his studies. 1)pronoun concord with every-, some-,any-, no- as antecedent Note that with everything, something, anything and nothing as antecedent, the pronoun and corresponding determiner can only take the singular form: it. Anything on the table can be thrown away, can’t it? Nothing could make me give it up , could it? 1)pronoun concord with every-, some-,any-, no- as antecedent If “one” is used as subject, the corresponding pronoun and determiner should be “one, one’s, oneself (BE.) ; he ,his , himself” (AE) (In one sentence, we should try not to use different forms of “one” in order to avoid repetition) If one doesn’t work hard , one/he can not succeed. One should always make use of his abilities if he wants himself to be successful in life. 2) Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent When the antecedent is a coordinate construction, the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner are generally determined by the plural or singular meaning of the coordination; 2) Pronoun concord with coordinate construction as antecedent --The owner and the captain decided to abandon their burning ship. --The editor and publisher of this magazine has been very strict with himself as well as his workers. --My friend and roommate has/have agreed to lend me his/their car (s). (either is right) 3) Pronoun concord with collective noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a collective noun, the choice of the number forms of the pronoun and corresponding determiner depends on the meaning of the pronoun in the context. --The government is paying its attention to raising the people’s living standard.( as a whole unit) --The football team ____discussing __ training program ____ all look excited. A. Is, its… He B. is, his.. they C. are, their …they D. are, their…. he 4) Pronoun concord with “plural noun/pronoun +each” as antecedent The choice of the number forms of the pronoun. and corresponding determiner depends on the position of the appositive each: --Each boy and girl has his own toy. --The boy and girl each have their own toys. --They each had their problems.( “each” before the verb, plural form) --They had each his own problem. (after the verb, take singular form) 4) Pronoun concord with “plural noun/pronoun +each” as antecedent If A and B share the same gender, the pronoun should be singular, if on the other hand, they are different in gender, pronoun and determiner take the masculine one (he, him, his) Each man and woman has his own right. Every girl and boy got what longed for A. they B. she C. he D. him Every mother and daughter in town has been invited to the party is longing for. A. they B. she C. he D. him 5) Coordination with “or”; “either…or” “neither …nor” “not only…but also” The choice of Pronoun and corresponding determiner which follows the principle of proximity depends on a closely preceding noun. Did John or Rose finish her homework? Neither his brothers nor the boy ____taller than ____father. A. is, his B. are, their C. are, they D. is, himself 2. Pronoun concord in gender Gender is a grammatical category. It is a set of grammatical forms of nouns, determiners and adjectives that tell of the distinctions of sex. English nouns have four genders: masculine, feminine, neuter, and common gender. 2. Pronoun concord in gender Some English pronouns, however, have grammatical contrasts between personal and nonpersonal reference and between masculine and feminine gender. These gender distinctions are largely restricted to the third person singular of personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners. In the use of these pronouns and determiners we must see to it that they agree with their antecedents in gender. 2. Pronoun concord in gender 1) Pronoun concord with male/ female noun as antecedent When the antecedent is a personal male/female noun, the pronoun and corresponding determiner should be masculine or feminine respectively. For Chinese students it is difficult for us to decide whether they are male or female. Doyle prides himself upon his skill as a pianist. (male person) Amy will be given considerable authority if she accepts the new position. (female person) 1) Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent (1) Common gender nouns, such as baby, person, customer, doctor, speaker, teacher, students etc, can either be male or female. When used in the singular for generic reference, these nouns are generally referred to as “ he, his or him”, or use plural forms “they , their or them” instead . An instructor should offer his students challenging projects. Instructors should offer their students challenging projects. 1) Pronoun concord with common gender noun as antecedent (2) Some common gender nouns such as baby, infant, and child may be referred to either by a personal or a nonpersonal pronoun. Generally speaking we use the neutral “it”, if the speaker knows the baby’s sex, he/ she will have to choose between the masculine and the feminine pronoun. 2) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent (1) When the antecedent is a singular noun of neutral gender, that is , a noun denoting an inanimate object, we generally use the neutral pronoun or determiner (it, its, itself) There is a baby in the pram. It’s crying. A baby is crying in the pram. She must be hungry. 2) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent That book has lost its cover. I will put a new one on it tomorrow. The machine works by itself. (2) Just as a baby may be designated“it”, so a member of a nonhuman species may be designated “he or she” eg, a ship or a car may be referred to as “she or her”. 2) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent (3) When the antecedent is an animal noun, it is generally referred to as “it”. if, on the other hand , the animal is spoken of with emotion or is personified, it may be referred to as he or she. This is also true of the names of celestial bodies or abstract ideas. (Referring to “the sun” we use “he or his” and the moon “she, or her”) The cat leaped onto my bed and coiled herself there. The sun was shining in all his splendid beauty. 2) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent (4) Names of countries may be treated either as feminine or neutral. When used as geographical units , they are inanimate and therefore neutral. If used as political /economic units, the names of countries are often feminine, and are generally referred to as “She or her”. --The ship struck on an iceberg, which tore a huge hole in her side. 2) Pronoun concord with neutral gender noun as antecedent --China is in east Asia. It is one of the largest countries in the world.( as geographical units ) --In the last decade of the 20th century, China began to assume her role as a world power.( as political units) 3. Pronoun concord in person. Person is a grammatical category. It is a grammatical form that shows the referential meaning of pronouns. In English, personal, possessive, and reflexive pronouns and corresponding determiners have three special forms: the first person, the second and the third person. Hence , in the use of pronouns, we must see to it that they agree with their antecedents in person. 3. Pronoun concord in person By pronoun concord in person, we mean two things: first, a pronoun must agree with its antecedent in person on the sentential level; secondly, in a broader context, that is, in texts or connected discourses, the speaker or writer must keep a consistent person in the use of pronouns. A story may be told either in the first or in the third person. Whichever person is used, it must be consistent from beginning to end. Let’s look at two examples on the sentential level: 3. Pronoun concord in person --Tom spoke to his mother, but she didn’t hear him. Their mother told them to return the toy, but they said it was theirs. Note that in one sentence, personal pronouns used as generic reference should be consistent from the beginning to end. 3. Pronoun concord in person As for generic reference. personal pronouns “we, they, you”(informal) and “one” or “ everybody, everyone…”(formal) can be used. We all get into trouble sometimes. You have to exercise if you are to keep fit. One is never too old to learn. 3. Pronoun concord in person Everybody should obey the law. ---If we are making statements about people in general, we should not shift from one person to another, but we should be consistent in our use of pronouns of generic person. 3. Pronoun concord in person In English , most personal pronouns and the interrogative / relative pronouns who have three case forms: the subjective case, objective case and genitive case. The genitive case falls into two categories: the determinative genitive and the nominal genitive. The following concerns the choice of case forms of pronouns 1) Choice between subjective and objective case Generally speaking, when a personal pronoun is used as the subject of a sentence, it takes the subjective case; when used as the object, the objective case; when used to show possession, the genitive case. But things are by no means all that simple , there are exceptions to this general rule. With regard to the choice of pronoun case forms, the following points are to be noted. 1) Choice between subjective and objective case (1) In comparative clauses,(…than/ as…) The choice between subjective and objective case follows the general rule. That is, in formal style when the verb is an intransitive one, we use the subjective case of the pronoun; when the verb is a transitive one, we use its objective case, when the pron. after “as /than” is used as subject , we use its subjective case, otherwise objective case. I am taller than he( is) You are as tall as I (am) 1) Choice between subjective and objective case --He broke the window rather than she/her --I trust you as much as her/ she.(…as I trust her) ( (…as she trust you) Compare: A: He likes Mary better than I B: He likes Mary better than me. # When such a pronoun has its own apposition, we usu. use its objective case: 1) Choice between subjective and objective case -- He is clever than us all. --She is taller than them both. (2) In a SVC construction where the subject complement is a personal pronoun, the objective is much more natural than the subjective case, that is, the informal style is more useful. --Who’s knowing at the door? ---- It’s me. ---The winners are them. So it is with the following constructions: think…to be; imagine…to be ;suppose… to be 1) Choice between subjective and objective case --They imagine the new manager to be me. --People supposed the best player to be her. (3) In a cleft-sentence (it is/ was…that /who… )where the focal element is a personal pronoun, the subjective case is much more common than the objective case though it is permissible to use the objective case in informal style. . 1) Choice between subjective and objective case --It is he who did it. --It was she/her who solved the problem. But if the focal element is used as object in that- or who-clause, we use the objective form of the pronoun. It is her that we are talking about 1) Choice between subjective and objective case (4) when the subject of a sentence is the construction of “everybody/nobody +but/except + personal pronoun”, usually the pronoun should occur in the objective case , because it is after the preposition. but usage requires that the subjective case is used when the whole construction is used as the subject or objective case when the whole construction is used as object. 1) Choice between subjective and objective case # If the prepositional phrase is shifted to the end of the sentence, the pronoun usually occurs in the objective case even though it remains part of the subject. --Nobody but she can solve our problems. --Nobody can solve our problems but her. ---I interviewed everybody but him 1) Choice between subjective and objective case (5) In a who-question , the case form of the interrogative pronoun is determined by its function in the sentence, In formal style, the pronoun should be in the subjective when it functions as subject, and in the objective case when it functions as object, but now we usually use its subjective to replace its objective case except it is after the preposition. --Who /whom are you talking about? --From who/whom did you receive the letter? 1) Choice between subjective and objective case (6) In a relative clause introduced by who, where the relative pronoun functions as the subject/object of the clause and is followed by an insertion “I believe/think” , the pronoun generally occurs in the subjective case or objective case. --She has an adopted child who/whom (she says) was an orphan. --I shall lent my book to the person whom I think I trust. 1) Choice between subjective and objective case (7) In a nominal clause introduced by whoever, the choice of the case form follows the general rule. If the personal pronoun functions as subject in the nominal clause, we use its subjective case, otherwise objective case. If this kind of relative pronoun acts as the subject complement after a verb phrase containing to be, it usu. occurs in the objective case,: --They always elect whoever is popular. 1) Choice between subjective and objective case --I trust whomever they will elect. --The woman (who, whom) we thought to be (she, her) turned out to be her sister 2) Choice between objective and genitive case As has been noted, when a personal pronoun is used as the object of a sentence, it usually occurs in the objective case, and, when used to denote possession, in the genitive case. Apart from these, the following points merit our attention. 2) Choice between objective and genitive case When an –ing participle clause with a personal pronoun as its own subject (personal pron.+-ing form) functions as subject , object or subject complement of the main clause, or object of prepositional phrase , the pronoun usually occurs in the genitive case. In informal style, however, the pronoun may also appear in the objective case. 2) Choice between objective and genitive case (1) as subject Their coming to help was a great encouragement to us . It’s no use your telling me not to worry. (2) as object I appreciate your / you telling me that. I want to avoid his/him thinking that I don’t want to help. 2) Choice between objective and genitive case (3) as subject complement Our sole worry is your/you relying too much on yourself. (4) Object of preposition Likewise, when the above-mentioned –ing form is used as prepositional complemention, the pronoun can occur either in the genitive or in the objective case. the former being more frequently used than the latter. --I told them about your/you resigning from office. --I am surprised at his/him making that mistake. 2) Choice between objective and genitive case They insisted on my/me staying there for supper. Compare: Mary’s coming late annoyed him. (as subject, only genitive case) I hate Mary’s/ Mary/ her coming late. (as object, three case forms) 2) Choice between objective and genitive case (5) When “ personal pronoun with the generic reference or an inanimate object + -ing form” is used as object in a sentence, we use its common gender. --I don’t like young people / them smoking. --She hate people losing their tempers. --He was awaked by someone knocking on the window. --Is there any hope of our team winning the game? 2) Choice between objective and genitive case (6) In an SVOC construction, where the object is realized by a personal pronoun, and the object complement by an –ing form , the pronoun can only take the objective case. in SVOC construction: see/hear/feel / notice /find sb doing get/ have/set sb/sth.doing I saw him falling down into the river. They caught him cheating on the exam. 2) Choice between objective and genitive case (7) when an infinitive clause with a personal pronoun as its own subject functions as the object of the main clause, the pronoun can only occur in the objective case. personal pron.+to infinitive: teach/order/…sb to do (intend/ trouble/forbid/order/ cause/enable…) --They advised me to reconsider my decision. --Everyone wanted me to be the leader of the movement.