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1. Hydroxyl group X-OH Common in: Alcohols 2. Amino group X-NH2 Amino Acids 3. Carboxyl group X-COOH Amino Acids, Organic Molecules 4. Methyl group X-CH3 Organic Molecules 5. Aldehyde group X-COH Sugars 6. Sulfhydryl group X-S-H Proteins 7. Ketone group Sugars X-CO-X 8. Phosphate group X-H2-PO4 Cells as energy carriers X is used to represent an unnamed molecule that the functional group is attached to. Formed by bonding small molecules [monomers] together into chains called polymers These larger molecules, macromolecules, may be composed of thousands of atoms. The 4 major classes of macromolecules are: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, & nucleic acids. Carbohydrates – Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with the general molecular formula CH2O. A)Monosaccharides – A simple sugar or carbohydrate which cannot be broken down into a sugar. Its molecular formula is C6H12O6, & the most common is glucose. Glucose B) Disaccharide – A double sugar or a combination of two simple sugar molecules. Sucrose, maltose, and lactose are disaccharides. C) Polysaccharide –polysaccharide A polysaccharide Animals One Starch Plants function can isthat astore storage feed of surplus polysaccharides on plants, glucose especially in is starch as anis a complex compound composed ofthis energy composed and parts withdraw rich storage inentirely starch, itmacromolecule when of can glucose needed also access monomers. for that energy isa large or number ofasglucose Examples are hydrolyzed carbon. starch to support needed. their units. own metabolism. starch, cellulose, and glycogen. Starch granules in potato tuber cells Glycogen granules in muscle tissue Cellulose fibrils in a plant cell wall Cellulose molecules Glucose monomer STARCH GLYCOGEN CELLULOSE Animals also store glucose in a polysaccharide called glycogen. Humans and other vertebrates store glycogen in the liver and muscles but only have about a one day supply. Structural polysaccharides form strong building materials. Cellulose is a major component of the tough wall of plant cells. Many eukaryotic like cows and termites, Cellulose Some microbes in ourherbivores, can fooddigest passes cellulose through tothe its have symbiotic digestive glucose monomers tract,relationships stimulating throughwith the thecellulolytic secretion use of cellulase of microbes, allowing them access to this rich source of mucus, and is eliminated in feces as “insoluble enzymes. energy. fiber”. Another important structural polysaccharide is chitin, used in the exoskeletons of arthropods (including insects, spiders, and crustaceans). Chitin also forms the structural support for the cell walls of many fungi. Lipids are organic compounds that dissolve The unifying feature of lipids is that they all poorly, if at all, in water (hydrophobic). All have oroils) no affinity for water. is lipidslittle (fat & are composed of This carbon, because their are dominated hydrogen, andstructures oxygen where the ratio by of nonpolar hydrogencovalent atoms tobonds. oxygen atoms is greater than 2:1. Saturated Unsaturated Unsaturated A fat is constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules, glycerol and fatty acids. Glycerol consists of a three carbon skeleton with a hydroxyl group attached to each. A fatty acid consists of a carboxyl group attached to a long carbon skeleton. If there are one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, then the molecule is an unsaturated fatty acid - formed by the removal of hydrogen atoms from the carbon skeleton. Saturated fatty acids are straight chains, but unsaturated fatty acids have a kink wherever there is a double bond. Most animal fats are saturated fats which are solid at room temperature. A diet rich in saturated fats may contribute to cardiovascular disease (atherosclerosis) through plaque deposits. Plantwith Fats and unsaturated fish fats, known fatty as acids oils,are areunsaturated liquid at fats. temperature. room The kinks provided by the double bonds prevent the molecules from packing tightly together. The major function of fats is energy storage. A gram of fat stores more than twice as much energy as a gram of a polysaccharide. Humans and other mammals store fats as long-term energy reserves in adipose cells. Fat also functions to cushion vital organs. A layer of fats can also function as insulation. This subcutaneous layer is especially thick in whales, seals, and most other marine mammals. Phospholipids have two fatty acids attached to glycerol and a phosphate group at the third position. The interaction of phospholipids with water is complex. The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic, but the phosphate group and its attachments form a hydrophilic head. When phospholipids are added to water, they self-assemble into aggregates with hydrophobic tails pointing toward the center and hydrophilic heads on the outside. Phospholipids are the major component of membranes. Proteins are composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, and sometimes phosphorus and sulfur. Approx. 50% of the dry weight of living matter is protein. Proteins are instrumental in about everything that an organism does. These functions include structural support, storage, transport of other substances, intercellular signaling, movement, and defense against foreign substances. Proteins are instrumental in about everything that an organism does. Proteins are the overwhelming enzymes in a cell and regulate metabolism by selectively accelerating chemical reactions. Humans have tens of thousands of different proteins, each with their own structure and function. Amino acids consist of four components attached to a central carbon, the alpha carbon. These components include a hydrogen atom, a carboxyl group, an amino group, and a variable R group (or side chain). *Differences in R groups produce the 20 different amino acids. The physical and chemical characteristics of the R group determine the unique characteristics of a particular amino acid. One group of amino acids has hydrophobic R groups. Another group of amino acids has polar R groups, making them hydrophilic. The last group of amino acids includes those with functional groups that are charged (ionized) at cellular pH. *Some R groups are bases, others are acids. 20 amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins. Polypeptides – Amino acids are assembled into polypeptides by means of peptide bonds. This is formed by a condensation reaction between the COOH groups and the NH2 groups Carboxyl group Amino group PEPTIDE BOND Dehydration synthesis Amino acid Amino acid Dipeptide Peptide Bond = A bond between two amino acids. The primary structure of a protein is its unique sequence of amino acids. The secondary structure of a protein results from hydrogen bonds at regular intervals along the polypeptide backbone. Tertiary structure is determined by a variety of interactions among R groups and between R groups and the polypeptide backbone. Quaternary structure – The manner in which two or more independently folded subunits fit together. *The Protein is now Functional Protein that speeds up a chemical reaction *Involved in nearly all metabolic processes. Enzymes lower the amount of activation energy needed for a reaction, allowing it to occur more rapidly. The enzyme binds with the substrate but resumes its original conformation after forming the enzyme-substrate complex. Coenzymes-These are metal ions or nonproteinaceous organic molecules that bind briefly and loosely to some enzymes. The coenzyme is necessary for the catalytic reaction of such enzymes. Cofactors-These are any organic or inorganic substance, especially an ion, that is required for the function of an enzyme. Nucleic Acids – long polymers involved in heredity and in the manufacture of different kinds of proteins. The two most important nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. Nucleotides – These are the building blocks of nucleic acids. Nucleotides are complex molecules composed of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group. DNA – Chromosomes and genes are composed mainly of DNA. It is composed of Deoxyribose, nitrogenous bases, and phosphate groups. Thymine Cytosine NH2 O Phosphate Group Nitrogenous Base O CH3 Sugar N OH N O O N H N H Double Bond Triple Bond Guanine Adenine O N NH2 N N N H HN N H2N N N H RNA – is involved in protein synthesis. Unlike DNA, it is composed of the sugar ribose and the nitrogenous base uracil instead of thymine. Describe the four major groups of organic compounds that compose the human body. Include their chemical make-up in your essay, but focus on their function and importance to organic life forms.