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Transcript
CHAPTERS 23-25 CONCURRENT ENROLLMENT CARBOHYDRATE METABOLISM 45% to 55% of the daily energy needs come from carbohydrates in the American diet During digestion the di- and polysaccarides are hydrolyzed into glucose, fructose and galactose After digestion these monosaccarides are absorbed into the blood system through the small intestines and transported to the liver Blood sugar The amount of glucose present in blood, normally expressed as milligrams per 100 mL of blood Continue Hypoglycemia A lower-than-normal blood sugar level Hyperglycemia higher-than-normal blood sugar level Renal threshold The blood glucose level at which glucose begins to be excreted in the urine Glucosuria A condition in which elevated blood sugar levels result in the excretion of glucose in the urine Glycolysis A series of reactions by which glucose is oxidized to pyruvate Page 713 A net gain of 2 mol of ATP is form for 1 mole of glucose and 2 moles of NADH is formed REGULATION OF GLYCOLYSIS Lactose intolerance The inability to digest milk and other products containing lactose The glycolytic pathway is regulated by three enzymes Hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase Phosphorylation of glucose is a feedback inhibition The second enzyme is an allosteric enzyme - high conc. of ATP and citrate inhibit it, while high conc. of ADP and AMP activate it The last step has the third enzyme which is also an allosteric enzyme -high conc. of ATP inhibits it Fates of pyruvate Aerobic In the presence of oxygen Forms acetyl CoA and NADH Anaerobic In the absence of oxygen Forms lactate and NAD+ Lactate fermentation The production of lactate from glucose In anaerobic conditions not enough energy is formed, not enough oxygen Alcoholic fermentation Pyruvate in two steps form ethanol Overall reaction the glucose forms ethanol and 2 ATP Figure 23.5 page 717 CITRIC ACID CYCLE Summary Acetyl CoA is the fuel of the cycle Requires a supply of NAD+ and FAD Two carbon atoms enter the cycle as an acetyl unit and two carbon atoms leave the cycle as CO2 In one cycle four redox reactions produce 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 One molecule of GTP is generated Fig 23.7 page 719 Citrate synthetase is an allosteric enzyme that is inhibited by ATP and NADH and activated by ADP ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN A series of reactions in which protons and electrons from the oxidation of foods are used to reduce molecular oxygen to water Cytochrome An iron-containing enzyme located in the electron transport chain Fig 23.9 page 721 Oxidative phosphorylation A process coupled with the electron transport chain whereby ADP is converted to ATP ATP is synthesized at three sites within the electron transport chain The entire catabolic pathway generates 10 ATP molecules for every 1 acetyl CoA Read pages 724-730 will be on test CHAPTER 24 Figure 24.1 page 738 Behavior of blood lipids parallels that of blood sugar One general method of classifying lipoproteins is by density LDL (less and 0.95 g/mL) and HDL (1.06-1.21 g/mL) Chylomicron A lipoprotein found in the lymph and the bloodstream Red blood cells cannot oxidized fatty acids, when body cells need fatty acids for energy, the endocrine system produces hormones which interact with adipose tissue Continue Adipose tissue A kind of connective tissue where triglycerides are stored Fat mobilization The hydrolysis of stored triglycerides, followed by the entry of fatty acids and glycerol into the bloodstream Oxidation of fatty acids Cannot be oxidized to produce energy until they pass through the mitochondrial membrane ß-oxidation process - a pathway in which fatty acids are broken down into molecules of acetyl CoA Four reactions are involved in oxidizing the -carbon to a ketone page 743 Net on page 744 Ketone bodies Lipids are 25% more efficient than carbohydrates in storing energy Lipids contain twice the energy of carbohydrates Ketone bodies Three compounds - acetoacetate, ß-hydroxybutyrate, and acetone - formed from acetyl CoA Ketone bodies are carried by the blood to body tissues, mainly the brain, heart, and skeletal muscle, where it is oxidized Ketonemia An elevated level of ketone bodies in the blood Continue Ketonuria The presence of ketone bodies in the urine Acetone breath A condition in which acetone can be detected in the breath Ketosis A condition in which ketonemia, ketonuria, and acetone breath exist together Acidosis Low blood pH Ketoacidosis Low blood pH due to elevated levels of ketone bodies FATTY ACID SYNTHESIS When more nutrients are brought in than needed the excess is not excreted but converted into fatty acids and then to body fat read pages 747-748 about this Amino acid metabolism 75% of the amino acids are used to synthesis protein in a health body Protein turnover- the continuing process in which body proteins are hydrolyzed and resynthesized Figure 24.7 page 750 Read pages 750-759 will be on the test CHAPTER 25 Intracellular fluid Body fluid located inside cells Extracellular fluid Body fluid located outside cells Interstitial fluid The fluid surrounding individual tissue cells Make up 20% of the total body fluid Plasma The liquid portion of the whole blood Makes up 7% of the total Principal cation of plasma and interstitial fluid is Na+, K+ is found in the intracellular Principal anion in extracellular is Cl- and phosphate inside cell Intracellular fluid contains 4 times more protein and in plasma Continue About 98% of the needed oxygen is carried by red blood cells Oxyhemoglobin - a oxygen-hemoglobin form Deoxyhemoglobin - nonoxygenated hemoglobin Carbaminohemoglobin - combined with carbon dioxide - about 25% of the carbon dioxide is carried from the body tissues to the lungs this way The remaining 70% is transported in the form of HCO3 Go over the chloride shift pages 769-770 CONSTITUENTS OF URINE Urine is made up of 96% water and 4% dissolved organic and inorganic waste The pH of a healthy person’s urine is 4.5-8.0 Table 258.1 page 772 The body is made up of 45-75% water Fluid and electrolyte balance are interdependent Most hospital patients have fluid and electrolyte balance therapy The output and intake must be equal Water normally leaves the body through the kidneys (urine, lungs, skin, and intestines (feces)) Vesopressin, ADH, increases the absorption of the renal tubules in the kidneys (water goes back into the bloodstream) ACID-BASE BALANCE Blood pH has to be 7.35-7.45 Death can occur if the pH goes above 7.8 and below 6.8 Alkalosis High blood pH Acidosis Low blood pH There are three buffer systems in the blood Bicarbonate buffer, phosphate buffer, and plasma proteins Buffers neutralize H+ and OH Respiratory system control pH by carbonic acid Hyperventilation - rapid, deep breathing Hypoventilation - slow, shallow breathing URINARY CONTROL OF pH Page 777 Acidosis and alkalosis page 777-780 read and it will be on test