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Transcript
Unit #1 Biochemistry The Chemistry of Life Organic Chemistry Organic Compounds • Organic compounds are compounds that contain carbon (with the exception of CO2 and a few others). Organic Compounds • Carbon based molecules Organic Compounds • Make up most of living organisms • Carbon can easily bond with up to 4 other elements 4 valence electrons = 4 covalent bonds Can bond to 4 H Carbon can form various bonds • Single bond (ethane) • C-C • Double bond (ethene) • C=C • Triple bond (ethyne) Organic Compounds • Carbon atoms form the “backbone” of long chains or rings • Organic molecules can be extremely large and complex; these are called macromolecules (or polymers) Ring structured Functional Groups • Various elements attach to the hydrocarbon backbone to form different types of compounds. • These reactive clusters of atoms are called functional groups. • Elements include: H, O, S, N & P Functional Groups Hydroxyl group • -OH • Found in alcohols • E.g. Ethanol • Polar Functional Groups Carboxyl group • -COOH • Found in acids • Polar E.g. Vinegar - acetic acid CH3COOH Functional Groups Amino group • -NH2 • Found in bases • E.g. Ammonia Functional Groups Sulfhydryl group • -SH • Often referred to as a thiol group • Found in Rubber - Thiols smell like garlic and are often added to natural gas to provide a detectable smell. Functional Groups Phosphate group • -PO4 • Found in ATP Functional Groups Carbonyl group • If this group is at the end, the compound is called an aldehyde • If it is found in the middle, it is called a ketone Functional Groups Carbonyl group #1 The Aldehydes • -COH • E.g. Formaldehyde Functional Groups Carbonyl group #2 The Ketones • -CO• E.g. acetone Functional Groups TEST YOUR KNOWLEDGE • What functional groups are in this molecule? Test Your Knowledge… • Name the functional groups Test Your Knowledge… • Name the functional groups Amino group Carbonyl group (Ketone) Carboxyl group Sulfhydryl group Organic Compounds The 4 main types of organic macromolecules: Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids Making & Breaking Organic Compounds Anabolic Reactions Condensation Reactions (Dehydration synthesis Reaction) • The removal of a –H from the functional group of one unit and a –OH from another unit to form a water molecule (H2O). • Energy absorbed Making & Breaking Organic Compounds Catabolic Reactions Hydrolysis Reactions • A water molecule (H2O) is used to break a covalent bond holding subunits together. • A –H from is given to one unit and a –OH to the another • Energy released Enzymes • Enzymes are biological catalysts. • They speed up reactions without actually being consumed in the reaction. • They are needed for condensation & hydrolysis reactions. Enzyme Action Example: Isomers • Isomers are molecules that have the same formula, but a different physical structure. • Glucose (C6H12O6) and galactose (C6H12O6) and fructose (C6H12O6) are examples of isomers. Isomers • Because of their differing arrangement of the atoms, they have different physical and chemical properties. • E.g. Carvone is a flavour compound that. There are 2 isomers of carvone. One makes things taste like spearmint the other like caraway. End Part I Get ready for Carbohydrates! Carbohydrates • Main energy source for living things • Breakdown of sugars supplies immediate energy for cell activities • Plants store extra sugar as complex carbohydrates called starches Carbohydrates • The most common organic material on Earth. • The general formula is C : H : O •Count the # of each atom in the molecule shown here: • In a ratio of 1 : 2 : 1 What are the functional groups on carbohydrates? • What are the functional groups on carbohydrates? Their functional groups include: 1. Carbonyl group (an aldehyde or ketone) 2. Hydroxyl groups Carbohydrates • There are 3 major classes: - Monosaccharide, - Oligosaccharide and - Polysaccharide Saccharide (means “Sugar” in Greek) The names of carbohydrates end in “ose”. Carbohydrates • Single sugar molecules are called monosaccharides • Monosaccharides with 5 or more carbons are linear in the dry state but form rings when dissolved in water. Monomer of Carbohydrates: Monosaccharides • Simple sugar • It is the main source of energy in the body • Eg. glucose – most common galactose – milk sugar fructose – fruit sugar Carbohydrates • Oligosaccharides are sugars containing 2 or 3 simple sugars attached to one another by covalent bonds called glycosidic linkages. • Recognize the dehydration reaction? Examples of Disaccharides Examples of Disaccharides • Sucrose = glucose + fructose Table sugar • Maltose = glucose + glucose Sugar in beer • Lactose = glucose + galactose Sugar in milk Carbohydrates • Large molecules of many monosaccharide are called polysaccharides • Also known as complex carbohydrates. Examples: • glycogen – animals use it to store excess sugar • starch – plants use to it store excess sugar • cellulose – fibers that give plants their rigidity & strength • Chitin – exoskeleton & fungi Polysaccharide: many sugars • Some polysaccharides are straight, others are branched. Starch • A storage molecule for plants. • It is made of 2 polysaccharides: – Amylose – Amylopectin The chains form tight coils which make them insoluble in water. Cellulose • Cellulose molecules are not coiled or branched. • The chains form cross-linkages between each other. • The fibers intertwine to form microfibrils. • Used to build cell walls. Chitin • Exoskeleton of insects & crabs • The cell wall of fungi • Chitin has uses in medicine: – Contact lenses – Biodegradable suture thread Which is a monosaccharide? A disaccharide? A polysaccharide? • • • • • • cellulose chitin glucose glycogen sucrose starch Which is a monosaccharide? A disaccharide? A polysaccharide? • • • • • • Cellulose P Chitin P Glucose M Glycogen P Sucrose D Starch P End Part II Get ready for Lipids! Lipids: • Store energy • Build cell membranes (& other cell parts) • Act as chemical signals Lipids: Fall into 4 families of fats: 1. Fats 2. Phospholipids 3. Steroids 4. Waxes Lipids: • Contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen • Have fewer polar –OH bonds & • More non-polar H-C bonds than carbohydrates. • Therefore, they are non-polar • They are NOT soluble in water but they are soluble in other non-polar substances. Lipids: • Fats store more energy than carbohydrates or proteins. • 1g fat = 38 kJ (9 Kilocalories) • 1g carb = 17 kJ (4 Kilocalories) • Calories are non-SI units of energy • 1 cal = 4.18 kJ of energy Lipids: • Animals convert excess carbohydrates into fats and store the fat molecules as droplets in cells of adipose (fat) tissue. Lipids: • Triacylglycerols (triglycerides) are the most common fat in plants and animals. They are made from a glycerol backbone with 3 fatty acid chains attached. Lipids: • Glycerol is a 3-carbon alcohol containing a hydroxyl group attached to each carbon. Lipids: • Fatty acids are long hydrocarbon chains containing a single carboxyl group at one end. • They are usually even numbered (16-18 carbons long) Lipids: • Fatty acids can be saturated (meaning that all carbons contain the maximum number of hydrogen). These have no double bonds. • Unsaturated fatty acids contain double or triple bonds so they are missing hydrogen-carbon bonds. If they have many double/triple bonds they are called polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids: Fatty acid shapes: 1. Saturated fatty acids have straight chains that fit tightly together allowing van der Waals attractions to form along their length. 2. These cross attractions make them solid at room temperature. Lipids: Fatty acid shapes: 1. Unsaturated fatty acids have kinked chains that do not fit tightly so van der Waals attractions do not form. 2. Without the van der Waal attractions they are liquid at room temperature. E.g. vegetable oils, fish oil, nut oils, etc. Lipids: Hydrogenation: is a process that adds hydrogen to the double bond areas “saturating” the fatty acid. This converts oils, like canola and corn oil into semisolid fats known as margarine or shortening. How to make a lipid 1. Link a glycerol unit and fatty acid chains… 2. A dehydration reaction takes place between the hydroxyl groups on the glycerol and the carboxyl group of the fatty acid. Three waters are removed. 3. The bond that results is called an ester linkage. 4. The process is known as esterification. Phospholipids: 1. Form the majority of cell membranes. 2. They contains: a) b) c) d) Glycerol molecule (backbone) 2 fatty acids (non-polar tails) Phosphate group (highly polar head region) Choline (nitrogen compound, part of the head) Phospholipids: 1. Have a hydrophilic head (water-loving) 2. Have a hydrophobic tail (water-fearing) Phospholipids: When added to water, the phospholipids will rearrange themselves into balls called a micelles so that the tails all face inward and the heads face outward. Phospholipids: Cell Membrane 1. The hydrophobic middle of the cell membranes do not allow polar or charged molecules to pass through. 2. Membranes need channel pores to allow them through. Sterols (Steroids) 1. Made from 4 fused hydrocarbon rings + numerous functional groups. 2. Examples: A. B. C. D. Cholesterol Testosterone Estrogen Progesterone 3. Cholesterol in animal cell membranes helps to stabilize the structure. 4. Too much cholesterol in our diets causes deposits in our blood vessels Sterols: Cholesterol 1. Cholesterol in animal cell membranes helps to stabilize the bilayer structure. 2. Too much cholesterol in our diets causes deposits of fatty acids (called plaques) to build up in in our blood vessels. 3. This condition is known as atherosclerosis. 4. When blood vessels become blocked we can suffer from: A. Stroke (blockage in the brain) B. Heart attack (blockage to arteries in the heart) Cholesterol & Sex Hormones 1. Cholesterol gets converted into vitamin D (needed for healthy bones and teeth) and bile salts (needed for the digestion of fats) 2. Sex hormones (testosterone, estrogen and progesterone) control the development of sex traits and sex cells (eggs & sperm) Waxes • • • • • • Waxes are long-chain fatty acids linked to alcohols or carbon rings. The hydrophobic molecules are firm and pliable. Their structure makes them ideal for making waterproof coatings on plant and animal parts. Cutin is a wax produced by plant cells to coat the stem, leaves and fruit. – This helps hold water in and keep infections out! Birds produce a waxy substance to waterproof their feathers. Bees produce a wax that they use to make their honey.combs Waxes • • • Waxes are long-chain fatty acids linked to alcohols or carbon rings. The hydrophobic molecules are firm and pliable. Their structure makes them ideal for making waterproof coatings on plant and animal parts. Waxes • Cutin is a wax produced by plant cells to coat the stem, leaves and fruit. – This helps hold water in and keep infections out! • Birds produce a waxy substance to waterproof their feathers. • Bees produce a wax that they use to make their honeycombs. End Lipids! Proteins • Contain C, H, O, plus nitrogen • Formed from amino acids joined together • More than 20 amino acids can be joined in any order or number to make countless proteins (think of how many words can be made from 26 letters!) Proteins • Chains are folded and twisted giving each protein a unique shape • Van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds help maintain protein’s shape • Shape of protein is important to its function! Proteins • Provide structure – Ex: Collagen- makes up your skin, muscles & bones • Aid chemical activities in your body – Ex: Enzymes- work to speed up rxns in your body • Transport substances into or out of cells • Help fight diseases Nucleic Acids • Contain C, H, O, N plus phosphorus • Formed by bonding of individual units called nucleotides nucleotide Nucleic Acid Nucleic Acids • Store and transmit hereditary information –Ex: DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) RNA (ribonucleic acid)