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Biology
Sylvia S. Mader
Michael Windelspecht
Chapter 1
A View of Life
Lecture Outline
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1
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1.1 How to Define Life
• Biology is the scientific study of life.
• There is great diversity among living things.
• Living things:
 are composed of the same chemical elements
as nonliving things.
 obey the same physical and chemical laws that
govern everything in the universe.
2
Diversity of Life
Despite diversity, all living things share
the same basic characteristics.
3
Characteristics of Life
1. Living things are organized.
• The levels of biological organization range
from atoms to the biosphere.
• The cell is the basic unit of structure and
function of all living things.
 Unicellular or multicellular
• Each level of organization is more complex
than the level preceding it.
 As biological complexity increases, each level
acquires new emergent properties.
4
Levels of Biological Organization
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oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
leaves
the brain
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
nervous
system
shoot
system
leaves
the brain
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
elephant
tree
nervous
system
shoot
system
leaves
the brain
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
tree
elephant
nervous
system
shoot
system
the brain
leaves
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area
Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
elephant
tree
nervous
system
shoot
system
leaves
the brain
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
epidermal tissue
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
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Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment
Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area
Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
elephant
tree
nervous
system
shoot
system
the brain
leaves
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
nervous tissue
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
nerve cell
plant cell
methane
oxygen
Atom
Smallest unit of an element composed
of electrons, protons, and neutrons
epidermal tissue
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Biosphere
Regions of the Earth’s crust,
waters, and atmosphere
inhabited by living things
Ecosystem
A community plus
the physical environment
Community
Interacting populations in a
particular area
Population
Organisms of the same
species in a particular area
Organism
An individual; complex
individuals contain organ systems
elephant
Organ System
Composed of several organs
working together
nervous
system
Organ
Composed of tissues functioning
together for a specific task
the brain
tree
shoot
system
leaves
Tissue
A group of cells with a common
structure and function
Cell
The structural and functional
unit of all living things
Molecule
Union of two or more atoms of
the same or different elements
Atom
Smallest unit of an element
composed of electrons, protons,
and neutrons
nervous tissue
nerve cell
methane
oxygen
epidermal tissue
plant cell
Characteristics of Life
2. Living things acquire materials and energy.
• Energy is the ability to do work.
 Energy is required to maintain organization and
conduct life-sustaining processes such as chemical
reactions.
• Metabolism is all the chemical reactions that occur in a
cell.
 The sun is the ultimate source of energy for nearly all
life on Earth.
• Plants, algae, and some other organisms capture solar
energy and perform photosynthesis.
• Photosynthesis is a process that converts solar energy
into the chemical energy of carbohydrates.
16
Acquiring Nutrients and Energy
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food
a.
d.
e.
b.
c.
f.
a: © John Warden/Purestock/SuperStock RF; b:© Photodisc Blue/Getty RF; c: © Charles Bush Photography; d : © Michael
Abby/Visuals Unlimited; e: © Pat Pendarvis; f: National Park Service Photo
17
Characteristics of Life
3. Living things maintain homeostasis.
• Homeostasis is the maintenance of internal
conditions within certain boundaries.
 Ability to maintain a state of biological balance
 Feedback systems monitor internal conditions and
make adjustments.
4. Living things respond to stimuli.
• Living things interact with the environment and
respond to changes in the environment.
 The ability to respond often produces movement.
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19
Characteristics of Life
5. Living things reproduce and develop.
• All living organisms must reproduce to maintain
a population.
• The manner of reproduction varies among
different organisms.
• When organisms reproduce, they pass on
copies of their genetic information (genes) to the
next generation.
 Genes determine the characteristics of an organism.
 Genes are composed of DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
20
Characteristics of Life
6. Living things have adaptations.
• An adaptation is any modification that makes
an organism better able to function in a
particular environment.
• The diversity of life exists because over long
periods of time, organisms respond to changing
environments by developing new adaptations.
• Evolution is the change in a population of
organisms over time to become more suited to
the environment.
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1.2 Evolution, the Unifying
Concept of Biology
• The theory of evolution explains the
diversity and unity of life.
 The theory of evolution suggests how all living
things descended from a common ancestor.
 Common descent with modification
22
Evolutionary Tree of Life
An evolutionary
tree is like a
family tree. An
evolutionary tree
traces the
ancestry of life on
Earth to a
common
ancestor.
23
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common
ancestor
(first cells)
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BACTERIA
common
ancestor
(first cells)
ARCHAEA
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BACTERIA
common
ancestor
(first cells)
ARCHAEA
cell with nucleus
EUKARYA
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BACTERIA
common
ancestor
(first cells)
ARCHAEA
Protists
cell with nucleus
EUKARYA
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BACTERIA
common
ancestor
(first cells)
ARCHAEA
Protists
Plants
cell with nucleus
EUKARYA
Fungi
Animals
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BACTERIA
common
ancestor
(first cells)
ARCHAEA
Protists
Plants
cell with nucleus
EUKARYA
Fungi
Animals
Past
Present
Time
Organizing Diversity
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that
identifies, names, and classifies
organisms.
• Systematics is the study of evolutionary
relationships between organisms.
• Classification categories
 From least inclusive category (species) to
most inclusive category (domain):
• Species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom,
and domain
• Each successive category above species includes more
types of organisms than the preceding one.
30
Levels of Classification
Domains
• Domain Archaea
 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in extreme
environments
• Prokaryotes lack a membrane-bound nucleus.
• Domain Bacteria
 Contains unicellular prokaryotes that live in all
environments
• Domain Eukarya
 Contains unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes
• Eukaryotes contain a membrane-bound nucleus.
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Domain Archaea
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• Prokaryotic
cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
extreme environments
• Absorb or
chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics
Methanosarcina mazei, an archaean
1.6
m
© Ralph Robinson/Visuals Unlimited
33
Domain Bacteria
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• Prokaryotic
cells
of various shapes
• Adaptations to
all environments
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
or chemosynthesize food
• Unique chemical
characteristics
Escherichia coli, a bacterium
1.5
m
© A.B. Dowsett/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.
34
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Domain Eukarya: Protists
Domain
Eukarya
• Algae, protozoans,
slime molds, and
water molds
Fig. 1.8
• Complex single cell
(sometimes filaments,
colonies, or even
multicellular)
• Absorb, photosynthesize,
or ingest food
1 µm
Paramecium, a unicellular protozoan
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Fungi
• Molds, mushrooms, yeasts,
and ringworms
• Mostly multicellular filaments
with specialized, complex cells
• Absorb food
Amanita, a mushroom
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Plantae
• Certain algae, mosses, ferns,
conifers, and flowering plants
• Multicellular, usually with
specialized tissues,
containing complex cells
• Photosynthe size food
Passiflora, passion flower, a flowering plant
Domain Eukarya: Kingdom Animalia
• Sponges, worms, insects,
fishes, frogs, turtles,
birds, and mammals
• Multicellular with
specialized tissues
containing complex cells
• Ingest food
Vulpes, a red fox
a: © Michael Abby/Visuals Unlimited; b: © Pat Pendarvis; c: © Tinke Hamming/Ingram Publishing RF; d: © Corbis RF
Kingdoms
• Domain Archaea – kingdom designations
undetermined
• Domain Bacteria - kingdom designations
undetermined
• Domain Eukarya
 Protists (composed of several kingdoms)
 Kingdom Fungi
 Kingdom Plantae
 Kingdom Animalia
36
Scientific Names
• Universal
• Latin-based
• Binomial nomenclature
 Two-part name
 First word is the genus.
• Always capitalized
 Second word is the species designation (or specific
epithet).
• Written in lowercase
 Both words are italicized.
 Examples: Homo sapiens (humans), Zea mays (corn)
37
Natural Selection
• Evolutionary mechanism proposed by Charles
Darwin
• Some aspect of the environment selects which
traits are more apt to be passed on to the next
generation.
 Individuals with the favorable traits produce the
greater number of offspring that survive and
reproduce.
 Increases the frequency of those traits in population
• Mutations fuel natural selection.
 Introduce variations among members of a population
38
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Some plants within a population exhibit variation in leaf structure.
Deer prefer a diet of smooth leaves over hairy leaves. Plants with
hairy leaves reproduce more than other plants in the population.
Generations later, most plants within the population have hairy
leaves, as smooth leaves are selected against.
1.3 How the Biosphere Is
Organized
• The biosphere is the zone of air, land, and
water where organisms exist.
• A population is all the members of a
species within an area.
• A community is a collection of interacting
populations within the same environment.
• An ecosystem is community plus its
physical environment.
40
Ecosystems
• Ecosystems are characterized by chemical
cycling and energy flow.
 Chemicals are not used up when organisms
die.
• Chemicals move from one population to another in a
food chain.
• As a result of death and decomposition, chemicals
are returned to living plants.
 Energy from the sun flows through plants and
other members of the food chain as one
population feeds on another.
• Therefore, there must be a constant input of solar
energy.
41
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heat
solar
energy
Chemicals Cycle
and Energy Flows
heat
heat
heat
heat
heat
WASTE MATERIAL, DEATH,
AND DECOMPOSITION
Chemical cycling
Energy flow
The Human Population
• Ecosystems have been negatively impacted
by human populations.
 Destruction of forest or grassland for
agriculture, housing, industry
 Destruction of coastal wetlands by waste and
other pollutants
• Humans depend upon healthy ecosystems
for:
 Food
 Medicines
 Raw materials
43
The Effect of Human Activities
on Coral Reefs
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a. Healthy coral reef
1975 Minimal coral death
b.
1985 Some coral death
With no fish present
1995 Coral bleaching with 2004 Coral is black from
limited chance of recovery sedimentation; bleaching
still evident
a: © Frank & Joyce Burek/Getty Images; b (All): © Dr. Phillip Dustan
44
Biodiversity
• Biodiversity is the total number and relative
abundance of species, the variability of their
genes, and the ecosystems in which they
live.
 Estimated to be as high as 15 million species
• Less than 2 million have been named and identified
• Extinction is the death of the last member
of a species or larger classification category.
 Estimates of 400 species/day lost due to human
activities
45
1.4 The Process of Science
• The scientific method is a standard series
of steps used in gaining new knowledge
through research.
 The scientific method can be divided into four
steps:
• Observation
• Hypothesis
• Experiments and Data Collection
• Conclusion
46
The Scientific Method
1. Observation
• Scientists use their senses to gather
information about a phenomenon or natural
event.
2. Hypothesis
• A hypothesis is a tentative explanation for
what was observed.
• Developed through inductive reasoning
• Testable
47
The Scientific Method
3. Experiments and Data Collection
• An experiment is a series of procedures
designed to test a hypothesis.
 Utilizes deductive reasoning to make a prediction
or expected outcome
• The manner in which a scientist conducts an
experiment is called the experimental
design.
 A good experimental design ensures that the
scientist is examining the contribution of a specific
factor called the experimental (independent)
variable to the observation.
• The experimental variable is the factor being tested.
48
The Scientific Method
3. Experiments and Data Collection (cont’d)
• A test group is exposed to the experimental
variable.
• A control group goes through all aspects of
the experiment but is not exposed to the
experimental variable.
• The data are the results of an experiment.
 Should be observable and objective
49
The Scientific Method
4. Conclusion
• The data are analyzed and interpreted to
determine whether the hypothesis is
supported or not.
 If prediction happens, hypothesis is supported.
 If not, hypothesis is rejected.
• Findings are reported in scientific journals
• Peers review the findings
• Other scientists then attempt to duplicate or
dismiss the published findings
50
Flow Diagram of Scientific Method
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Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
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Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from various sources
is used to formulate a
testable statement.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from various sources
is used to formulate a
testable statement.
Experiment/Observations
The hypothesis is
tested by experiment
or further observations.
Courtesy Leica Microsystems Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from various sources
is used to formulate a
testable statement.
Experiment/Observations
Conclusion
The hypothesis is
tested by experiment
or further observations.
The results are analyzed,
and the hypothesis is
supported or rejected.
Courtesy Leica Microsystems Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from various sources
is used to formulate a
testable statement.
Experiment/Observations
Conclusion
The hypothesis is
tested by experiment
or further observations.
The results are analyzed,
and the hypothesis is
supported or rejected.
Scientific Theory
Many experiments and
observations support a
theory.
Courtesy Leica Microsystems Inc.
Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Observation
New observations
are made, and previous
data are studied.
Hypothesis
Input from various sources
is used to formulate a
testable statement.
Experiment/Observations
Conclusion
The hypothesis is
tested by experiment
or further observations.
The results are analyzed,
and the hypothesis is
supported or rejected.
Scientific Theory
Many experiments and
observations support a
theory.
Courtesy Leica Microsystems Inc.
Scientific Theory
• Scientific Theory:
 Concepts that join together two or more well-supported
and related hypotheses
 Supported by broad range of observations, experiments,
and data
• Scientific Principle / Law:
 Widely accepted set of theories
 No serious challenges to validity
57
Basic Theories of Biology
58
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Control pots
Test pots
Test pots
no fertilization treatment
90 kg of nitrogen/ha
Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
a. Control pots and test pots
of three types
Test pots
45 kg of nitrogen/ha
Using the Scientific
Method: Pigeon Pea/Winter
Wheat Rotation Study
Wheat Biomass (grams/pot)
20
15
Control Pots
= no fertilization treatment
Test Pots
= 45 kg of nitrogen/ha
= 90 kg of nitrogen/ha
= Pigeon pea/winter wheat rotation
10
5
0
year 1
year 2
year 3
b. Results
(All): Courtesy Jim Bidlack
Using the Scientific Method: A Field Study
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a. Scientist making observations
resident
male
c. Resident male
attacking a male
model near nest
b. Normal mountain
bluebird nesting
behavior
male
bluebird
model
Approaches per Minute
2.0
Approaches to
male model
1.5
1.0
Approaches to
female mate
0.5
nest 1
nest 2
0
nest
first egg
construction laid
hatching
of eggs
Stage of Nesting Cycle
female
mate
d. Observation of two experimental nests provided data
for graph.
© Erica S. Leeds