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VOL. 50 • NO. 2
June 2010
000 Measurable Emotions: How Television Ads Really Work: How the Patterns of Reactions to
Commercials Can Demonstrate Advertising Effectiveness
ANCA CRISTINA MICU and JOSEPH T PLUMMER
•
Emotions play at least the same level of importance as conscious rational thought in consumer
•
•
•
It is likely advertising researchers have exaggerated the role of conscious thought.
•
Storytelling in advertising enhances anchoring of the brand name into memory because consumers
reactions to brand messages.
Verbal inquiries about people’s spontaneous preferences are neither sufficient nor adequate.
Physiological measures add depth to our understanding of how commercials work by allowing us to
tap into the moment by moment emotional reactions commercials generate.
co-create the meaning of the brand together with the advertiser at an emotional level.
DOI: 10.2501/S002184990909????
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
1
Measurable Emotions: How Television Ads
Really Work
How the Patterns of Reactions to Commercials Can
Demonstrate Advertising Effectiveness
ANCA CRISTINA MICU
Welch College of
Business, Sacred
Emotional responses are complex and should be measured against a variety of
metrics. Five advertising research companies spanning three physiological (GSR,
Heart University,
HRT, and facial EMG), one symbolic (ZMET), and three self-report (verbal, visual, and
Fairfield, Connecticut
moment-to-moment) measures tested the effectiveness of the same four television
[email protected]
JOSEPH T. PLUMMER
Columbia Business
School; Olson Zaltman
Associates
[email protected]
commercials. This study compared and contrasted the physiological, symbolic, and
self-report measure results and found they should be used in combination, depending
on the information needed. Traces from the physiological measures indicate the peaks
of lower-order emotions. Self-report measures capture conscious emotional reactions
using preset labels. Symbolic measures provide a mental map of the brand. The
authors suggest brand managers could use different criteria in setting the advertising
objectives and reorient the creative briefing process. Emotional experiences are
co-created, and advertising planning should link the “brand story” with a consumer’s
“life story.”
INTRODUCTION
new learning from neuroscience and psychology
THREE TYPES OF EMOTIONAL REACTIONS
(Poels and deWitte, 2006). The sources of commer-
Both practitioners and academics are convinced
cially employed advertising research methods not
affect plays an important part in the processing of
mirroring such current knowledge are thought to
brand messages. A rich stream of academic research
be the entrenched beliefs about rational consum-
stresses the importance of emotional reactions to
ers and marketing and advertising processes based
advertising and focuses on the study of the effect of
on the old attention-interest-desire-action or think-
ad-evoked feelings on advertising responses.
feel-do models (Micu and Plummer, 2007).
Steering away from classic “hierarchy-of-effects”
The main concern of this study is to investigate
models, more recent studies have applied current
whether there is a gap between the knowledge
knowledge from neuroscience and consumer psy-
about the primacy of emotional response in the
chology to test consumer processing of advertising
consumer’s mind and the tools widely used to
as narrative structures of meaning in which emo-
assess the effects of advertising on consumers.
tions play an important role (Escalas, 2004; Lobler,
The first part of this study draws on the con-
Maier and Markgraf, 2005; Passyn and Sujan,
sumer psychology literature and presents the dif-
2006). Emotional reactions and the unconscious are
ferent types of emotional reactions people have
important when painting a full picture of people’s
when exposed to stimuli. Following Kardes, Posa-
interpretations of stimuli (Zwaan and Radvansky,
vac and Cronley (2004) and Heath and Hyder
1998; Wyer, Adaval and Colcombe 2002).
(2004), the authors differentiate between spontane-
It is crucial to evaluate whether current methods
ous and prompted thoughts and point to the pitfall
used to measure emotions in advertising reflect the
of using verbal measures alone when researching
DOI: 10.2501/S002184990909????
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
1
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
responses to advertising. Next, the authors
on existing mental models are automatic
and behavior (for a detailed discussion,
present a short summary of the existing
reactions and are fairly consistent across
see Kardes et al., 2004).
advertising research methods available to
individuals. People are unaware of the
Spontaneous thoughts that occur in
study emotional reactions to advertising
automatic processes, yet this initial uncon-
low-elaboration conditions follow a narra-
(for detailed descriptions of the measures,
scious emotional reaction cues affect-con-
tive format (Escalas and Luce 2004). Such
see Poels and Dewitte, 2006). The authors
gruent materials in memory. In addition,
narrative processing creates or enhances
indicate which type of emotional reaction
knowledge may be actively recruited to
self-brand connections (Escalas 2004),
each method measures.
access more fully the emotion-eliciting
which further impact brand attitudes
In the second part of the article, find-
stimulus and to transform the initial emo-
and behavioral intentions. The authors
ings from an exploratory study are pre-
tional reaction into a motivationally rel-
conclude that spontaneous thoughts as
sented wherein five advertising research
evant response (Wyer et al., 2002).
opposed to prompted thoughts are more
companies agreed to employ their indi-
After exposure to a stimulus, people
authentic and thus more accurately pre-
vidual methods for measuring emotional
generate inferences (thoughts) about it.
dict behavioral intentions however they
responses to the same four beer television
Some inferences are spontaneous; others
are more difficult to measure.
commercials. The added value of employ-
may be prompted. Spontaneous infer-
ing nonverbal measures of emotional
ences are formed by consumers as judg-
VERBAL MEASURES INSUFFICIENT AND
response in addition to verbal ones is
ment-relevant information is encountered
INADEQUATE
researched. The study ends with a discus-
and occur without the biasing influence
Spontaneous inferences fit together in an
sion of the findings and implications to
of questions. Prompted inferences are
event or an episode model that people
advertising practice.
those encouraged by questions during the
construct in the course of comprehending
questions-and-answers phase of a study
an event (Wyer et al., 2002). Such episode
(Kardes et al., 2004).
models can have both meta-linguistic (ver-
LITERATURE REVIEW
Changing direction from an emphasis on
bal) and “image” (nonverbal) components.
rational thought, this study points to the
Spontaneous Thoughts about Brands
importance of the initial emotional reac-
More Authentic than Prompted Thoughts
while the image component of an episode
tion to a stimulus and distinguishes it
Using both verbal and nonverbal meas-
model in the brain is obligatory, the ver-
from the subsequent mesh of feelings and
urements of thoughts (or inferences)
bal component is optional. Hence, people
judgments. Drawing on the affect-as-infor-
that consumers generate about products
may not always be able to readily verbal-
mation literature, Pham, Cohen, Pracejus,
after advertising exposure, Kardes et al.
ize their impression of an event, so verbal
and Hughes, writing in the Journal of Con-
observe, in the Journal of Consumer Psychol-
measures are insufficient to produce the
sumer Research (2001), differentiate among
ogy (2004), that spontaneous inferences
full picture of a consumer’s spontaneous
three types of emotional reactions:
have a greater impact on subsequent judg-
impression.
• Type I: Physiological changes happening during the initial reaction
• Type II: Automatic mapping of stimulus
features onto an existing mental model
• Type III: Conscious assessment of the
stimulus’ significance
According to Wyer and his colleagues,
ments and behavior than prompted infer-
In addition, Heath and Hyder (2004)
ences. Formed along the actual exposure,
state that advertising research currently
spontaneous inferences occur in the field
relies on verbal questions that ask people
and in controlled laboratory settings.
their opinions of advertising, using ques-
In contrast, prompted (or measurement-
tions that invite people to recall things
induced) inferences are formed only in
they have no reason to remember. Hav-
response to questions that set off inferen-
ing people introspect about their reasons
tial processes that would not have been
for liking or disliking certain options
The initial physiological response will
initiated in the absence of direct question-
decreases the quality of their judgments
prompt subsequent thought generation
ing. Kardes and his colleagues build the
and decisions (Wilson and Schooler, 1991).
(i.e., feelings and judgments) through
argument that spontaneous inferences are
Cognitive operations performed with the
both automatic (type II) and controlled/
more accessible from memory and held
explicit goal of reaching a reason-based
conscious (type III) processes. According
with greater confidence, leading to more
assessment may bring to mind judgmental
to Pham and his colleagues, both physi-
confidently held judgments, and hence
considerations that are highly accessible
ological changes and mapping of stimuli
have a greater impact on other judgments
and easy to verbalize—criteria that might
2
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June 2010
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
be different from those one would nor-
THREE TYPES OF MEASURES
Poels and Dewitte (2006) conclude that
mally use in spontaneous evaluations and
In the Journal of Advertising Research (2006),
it is not appropriate to use heart rate as the
choices (Pham et al., 2001).
Poels and deWitte provide a review of
single measurement method of emotional
To sum up, verbal inquiries about
existing measures of emotional response
response. Facial EMG turns out to be the
people’s spontaneous preferences are nei-
and divide them into (1) autonomic meas-
better measure of the valence of the emo-
ther sufficient nor adequate when trying to
ures and (2) self-report measures.
tional reaction as it records facial muscle
identify and weigh the various items that
movement from two different muscles, the
might tip the balance in favor of a certain
Autonomic (Physiological) Measures
zygomatic muscle (more active at expo-
option. The importance of a metaphor-
Autonomic measures are physiological
sure to positive stimuli) and the corru-
based, nonverbal measure also is stressed
measures of emotional reactions, and they
gator muscle (reacts more at exposure to
by Zaltman and Coulter (1995), who
include: skin conductance measures (SC),
negative stimuli; Bolls et al., 2001).
propose a metaphor-elicitation-technique,
heart rate turbulence measures (HRT), and
and by Young (2004), who proposes classic
facial muscle movement measures (facial
Self-Report Measures
archetypes as brand meaning metaphors.
EMG). More recently, brain-imaging tech-
Self-report measures include verbal (when
In advertising research, practitioners ask
niques (functional magnetic resonance
consumers answer questions about their
people questions about how they make
imaging) have been added to the list of
feelings) and visual (when consumers
decisions and why they approach certain
physiological measures.
indicate the visual representations that
brands, thus favoring prompted responses
Physiological measures help confirm
best match their feelings) measures and
drawn from the conscious and rational
the existence and strength of the initial
magnitude scaling (moment-to-moment
brain processes. The case is built here for
spontaneous emotional reaction, the base
measures) such as dial turns or mouse
the need for additional measures besides
of the subsequent feelings and judgments.
movement on a continuum. Self-report
verbal ones when researching reactions to
From previous literature that involved the
measures assess prompted inferences or
brand information so that advertisers have
use of physiological methods in the test-
thoughts about advertisements or brands.
a closer look at spontaneous inferences
ing of advertisements, SC emerges as a
First, in the case of verbal self report,
about brand messages.
good indicator of arousal (Bolls, Lang, and
people answer questions from a question-
It is likely advertising researchers have
Potter, 2001; Ravaja, 2004). As it confirms
naire that asks about their feelings after
exaggerated the role of conscious thought.
the increase in activation of the autonomic
being exposed to an advertisement. The
Emotions come before thought, and an
nervous system, the SC measure helps
questions carry specific words that trig-
emotional response can occur even when
confirm the existence of an emotional reac-
ger thoughts and prompt words that most
people have no awareness of the stimuli
tion however lacks the capability to indi-
likely have not been present spontane-
that caused it. In fact, emotions can be
cate the valence of emotions (Poels and
ously after seeing the advertisement (e.g.,
considered as the gatekeeper for further
Dewitte 2006).
“Did this ad make you feel lively/outgo-
ad processing (Poels and Dewitte, 2006).
By measuring changes in the heart rate
ing/carefree?”). After some introspection,
What happens in consumers’ brains is
of participants exposed to commercials, in
the respondent indicates how well each
likely to be a mixture of processes, some
addition to arousal researchers also gener-
descriptor matches his or her interpreta-
of which they are not aware of and cannot
ate information about the valence of the
tion of his or her feelings.
articulate.
emotional reactions, as heart rate increases
Second, in the case of visual self report,
There are other measures of emotions
or decreases as stimuli are positive or
respondents point to a sketch of emotion
besides verbal inquiry that are available to
negative respectively (Cuthbert, Bradley,
(e.g., self-assessment manikin, PrEmo) that
advertising researchers. The measures are
and Lang 1996; Bolls et al., 2001). Heart
best matches their feeling or sort through
presented next, followed by the explora-
rate is operationalized as the number of
stills from a commercial and rate the pic-
tory study. The authors believe the study
milliseconds since the previous heart beat.
tures in terms of the strength of the feeling
is the first one to examine seven different
Its main use is as a valid real-time continu-
generated. The researcher puts a verbal
measures of advertising exposure results
ous measure of attention. In terms of shed-
label on either the sketch or the type of
employed commercially when testing
ding light on the valence of emotions, HRT
feeling represented in the still frame, thus
for emotional responses to television
could prove hard to interpret when both
“prompting” the participant’s thoughts
commercials.
positive and negative stimuli are present.
during the testing.
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
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MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
Third and last, magnitude scaling or
be applied using a large sample of partici-
advertising effectiveness to be better pre-
moment-to-moment measurement is a
pants, ZMET may be used in the interpre-
dictors of brand measures.
test where the respondents turn a dial
tation of brand meaning as conveyed by
or move a cursor along a continuum
the advertisement.
In the Journal of Marketing Research
(1997), Baumgartner et al. confirmed that
between researcher-provided end-descrip-
Another symbolic measure available
an increasing pace of emotional reactions
tors. Moment-to-moment affective reac-
commercially is an archetype-selection
to a commercial has beneficial effects
tions are integrated into overall judgments
method (Young, 2004). Based on implicit
on overall ad and brand judgments. In a
and hence happen at a conscious level
associations as well, participants examine
study that compared verbal with moment-
(Baumgartner, Sujan, and Padgett, 1997.)
and select photographs of classical arche-
to-moment self-report testing results, the
To sum up, all three self-report meas-
types (e.g., “rebel,” “hero,” “couch potato,”
researchers found significant correlations
ures are adequate for gauging people’s
“nerd”) and indicate which represents a
between moment-to-moment self reports
prompted thoughts or inferences about
brand best post advertising exposure.
of affective reactions from 27 participants
advertisements or brands.
Thus, the authors of this study added
(with verbal self-report measures of ad lik-
symbolic measures as a separate category
ing, brand liking and brand recall) for 30
Symbolic Measures
to autonomic and self-report ones (see
commercials promoting various products
Missing from Poels and Dewitte’s clas-
Figure 1).
and services. The research stressed the
sification are measures that shed light on
importance of an emotional peak in the
spontaneous inferences and thoughts in
Comparing the Different Measurement
“story” the commercial tells. Their meas-
addition to prompted ones. The research-
Methods
ure for a peak emotional experience (i.e.,
ers do mention the “implicit association
Verbal self-report measures are the ones
the maximum of the affect trace) was sig-
test” that overcomes the social desirability
most commonly employed in the study
nificantly correlated with the verbal self-
bias that may distort self reporting (Brunel,
of consumer reactions to television adver-
report measures of ad and brand liking.
Tietje, and Greenwald, 2004).
tisements. For this literature review, the
In another study of emotional responses,
The Zaltman metaphor-elicitation tech-
authors identified three studies in which
reported in the pages of the Journal of
nique (ZMET) is one research method
verbal self-report results are compared to
Advertising Research (2002), Morris, Woo,
based on implicit associations. In a ZMET
magnitude scaling, visual self report, and
Geason, and Kim used a visual self-report
study, before coming in for an in-depth
facial EMG results, respectively. All three
method, AdSAM, and verbal self-report
interview, participants are asked to gather
studies found the nonverbal measures of
measures of advertising effectiveness in a
pictures that reflect their thoughts and feelings about an advertisement and brand.
Both conscious and unconscious reflection ensues (for a complete description of
Mental Activity
the method, see Zaltman, 1997) through
this process. The ZMET technique may be
used in mapping the consumers’ mental
models that include both judgments and
Process
Reactions
feelings (Christensen and Olson, 2002).
The results of a ZMET study are selfreported at face value. The method taps
into the unconscious, however, and triggers both spontaneous and prompted
thoughts.
Considering
that
ZMET
involves symbols to help shed light on
Measurement
Methods
Exposure
Unconscious
(No cognitive bias)
Emotion
Type I
Conscious
(Cognitive bias)
Interplay of Feelings and
Judgments
Type II
Behavior
Type III
Physiological
Spontaneous
Prompted
Autonomic
Symbolic
Self-report
EMG
GSR
HRT
fMRI
Implicit
association
Metaphorelicitation
Archetypeselection
Verbal
Self-report
Visual
Self-report
Moment-tomoment
Self-report
consumer’s mental models of advertisements or brands, the authors of this study
have labeled it a symbolic method. Qualitative in nature and too time-consuming to
4
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
June 2010
Figure 1 Measurement Methods and the Types of Reactions
They Measure
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
various set (TV, print, radio) of advertis-
advances in neuroscience and consumer
Previous literature established storytelling-
ing stimuli. They concluded that, when
psychology provide an improved way to
type brand messages to be emotion-based
using the visual self-report measure, emo-
assess advertising effectiveness compared
(Escalas, 2004). Storytelling in advertising
tions dominate over cognitive aspects in
to the traditional verbal methodThere are
enhances anchoring of the brand name
predicting brand attitudes and purchase
at least two reasons for conducting a study
into memory because consumers co-create
intent.
on the benefits of nonverbal measures of
the meaning of the brand together with
Going beyond comparing various self-
advertising effectiveness. First, the physi-
the advertiser at an emotional level. Argu-
report measures, Hazlett and Hazlett
ological and magnitude-scaling meas-
ment-based messages work on a cognitive
(1999) employed a physiological measure
urements presented earlier are authentic
level and, hence, they do not generate rel-
(facial EMG) and verbal self reports (1999).
continuous measures that reveal the
evant brand associations at a subconscious
Their results indicate that, compared to
changes of levels of emotions along the
level. Hence, the authors hypothesize that
self report, facial EMG results were more
advertisement length and the peak reac-
storytelling-type (emotion-based) com-
related to brand recall measures adminis-
tion moments in addition to the overall
mercials will reveal an increased emo-
tered 5 days later.
evaluation of the ad and brand resulting
tional reaction on all nonverbal measures
For this literature review, no other aca-
from verbal evaluations. Second, as pre-
compared to argument-based ones.
demic study that compared physiologi-
sented earlier, physiological measures are
cal with verbal self-report measures was
unbiased and tap into the unconscious
located, as use of autonomic measures in
while symbolic and visual self-report
messages will show greater
advertising has been rather scarce (Vakrat-
measures tap into the consumers’ sponta-
emotional reactions on the SC
sas and Ambler, 1999). Poels and Dewitte
neous inferences.
measure than argument-based
H2a:
Emotion-based
advertising
(2006) mention industry case studies that
Hence, when a brand message stirs emo-
were very promising in showing a differ-
tions, nonverbal measures will indicate so.
ence between self-report measures and
Thus, the central research question of this
autonomic ones in predicting advertising
study asks whether nonverbal measures
sages will show greater emo-
effectiveness, with the physiological meas-
provide additional information about the
tional reactions on the HRT
ures being the most powerful. Poels and
consumer’s emotional reaction to verbal
measure than argument-based
Dewitte also conclude that it is a major
measure results.
ones.
ones.
H2b:
Emotion-based advertising mes-
challenge for advertising researchers to
explore the potential and compare the pre-
RQ1:
Do nonverbal measures of emo-
H2c:
Emotion-based advertising mes-
dictive power of autonomic measures with
tional response to television
sages will show greater emo-
self-report measures in well-designed
commercials provide additional
tional reactions on the facial
research experiments.
information to verbal measure
EMG measure than argument-
results?
based ones.
Next, the authors present a study involving five different advertising research
companies that (among them) employed
Based on the same two arguments about
all three types (autonomic, symbolic, and
nonverbal
authentic
sages will show greater emo-
self-report) of measures to test the same
and tapping into either the unconscious
tional reactions on the visual
four television commercials. While still
or spontaneous inferences, the authors
self-report measure than argu-
far away from Poels and Dewitte’s sug-
hypothesize nonverbal measures to be
ment-based ones.
gested thoroughly designed experiments,
effective tools to evaluate whether an
this exploratory study does examine
advertising message is emotion-based (as
further the methodologies available for
opposed to argument- or cognition-based).
measures’
being
H2d:
H2e:
Emotion-based advertising messages will show greater emotional
testing emotional reactions to television
commercials.
Emotion-based advertising mes-
reactions on the moment-toNonverbal measures identify
moment
With this study, the authors examine
H1:
and differentiate emotion-based
than argument-based ones.
whether nonverbal measures of emotional
advertising messages from argu-
reactions developed in response to the
ment-based ones.
June 2010
self-report
measure
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
5
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
Verbal self-report measures are the ones most
“Weasel” commercial about a young man
playing a trick at a party where he decides
commonly employed in the study of consumer reactions
to drink Heineken instead of the beer he
bought; and BudLight’s “Ice” ad about
to television advertisements.
players from a team engaged in locker
room banter. As we argue here that emotional responses come first as a response to
In an advertising context, “meaningful-
measure (ZMET), and one of each category
any brand stimulus, the fourth commercial
ness” implies that the ad message should
of self-report measures (verbal, visual, and
selected had a strong cognitive message:
convey information relevant to the prod-
moment-to-moment). Differences among
there are fewer carbs in Miller Lite. All
uct. The theme of an ad would be the main
emotional reactions recorded using physi-
commercials selected for the project were
message benefit that the ad is trying to
ological and self-report (both quantitative)
successful in the market and had positive
convey. The ad theme thus serves to posi-
methods were examined, and then find-
sales results—some greater than others
tion the brand based on one or two key
ings were related to the interpretations of
but all considered effective by advertisers
benefits in the marketplace. Beyond being
advertisement meanings provided by the
and their agencies.
meaningfully different, a creative ad must
symbolic (qualitative) measure.
also connect with the audience. Research
Measurements of Emotional Reactions
on measuring advertising effectiveness
Participants and Stimuli
reinforces the importance of the corre-
The
companies
included in the study (See Table 1 for brief
spondence between ad meaning creation
recruited participants from the core target
descriptions and sample size) includes the
by the advertiser and ad attention and
group of the beer product category. All
following:
comprehension by the audience (Ang, Lee,
participants from the studies were males
and Leong, 2007).
between the ages of 21 and 35 who drink
• Physiological: As presented heretofore,
H3:
H4:
advertising
testing
A summary of the measurement methods
beer on one or more occasions in a typi-
three of the physiological measures
advertising
cal week. All participants were familiar
were represented in the study: skin
message will score higher on
with all four beer brands. There were 50
conductance (SC), heart rate turbulence
meaningfulness than emotion-
participants in the physiological tests (40
(HRT), and facial electromyography
based ones.
for facial EMG), 6 participants in the sym-
(facial EMG). For the facial EMG meas-
bolic test, and 640 participants in the self-
ure, zygomatic muscle activity (positive
Emotion-based messages will
report tests (exception, 203 in the visual
emotions) was recorded. The authors
score
self report).
looked at the emotional reactions to the
Argument-based
higher
on
connected-
ness than the argument-based
messages.
The four commercials were chosen care-
four beer commercials from these three
fully by a panel of judges consisting of
measures of attention, arousal, and lev-
five industry experts. The judges picked
els of positive emotion respectively.
THE STUDY
three commercials that they considered
As this study is exploratory in nature
To examine the research question and
involving and emotionally arousing and a
and given the limitations in the data
test the hypotheses the authors sampled
control commercial that used a cognitive
provided by the companies, the authors
five advertising research companies in
type of appeal. So, following the lead of
examined the patterns in the traces of
an effort to span methodologies from the
Escalas (2004), three of the commercials
data recorded via the three measures
three types of measures. The companies
were of the storytelling type (Budweiser,
by normalizing the three sets of physi-
agreed to employ their individual meth-
Heineken, and BudLight) while the fourth
ological data. Previous research found
ods to measure emotional responses to
was chosen for its strong low-carbohy-
that people prefer an improving series
the same four beer television commercials,
drates argument (Miller Lite). From the
of events (Loewenstein and Prelec,
which were chosen among several with
first three commercials with a narrative
1993) and are also sensitive to the rate of
proven market results.
thread, each told a story: Budweiser’s
improvement over time (Hsee and Abel-
Included were three physiological meas-
“Whassup” spot about friends connected
son, 1991). Hence, the authors looked at
ures (SC, HRT and facial EMG), a symbolic
by a special greeting and beer; Heineken’s
the trend lines throughout the length
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June 2010
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
TABLE 1
Classification of Measurement Methods
Measure
Description of Measure
N
Physiological
HRT (Bolls et al., 2001)
• Heart rate turbulence is recorded by attaching a device to participants’ fingers while they watch
50
SC (Aaaker et al., 1986)
• Skin conductance is recorded by attaching electrodes to the palm of participants’ hands while
they watch
50
Facial EMG (Bolls et al., 2001) • Zygomatic muscle activity (smiling) is recorded by attaching electrodes to the participants’
faces while they watch
40
Symbolic
ZMET (Zaltman, 1997)
• Participants collect random images representing their thoughts and feelings about the
commercial and then come in for a depth-interview during which a meaning map is developed
6
Self Report
Verbal
Attitude toward the Ad (Aad)
• Participants answer questions online (Mean for 160 respondents per ad)
640
Attitude toward the Brand (Ab)
• Participants answer questions online (Mean for 160 respondents per ad)
640
Message Relatedness
(Ang et al., 2007)
• Participants answer questions online (Mean for 160 respondents per ad)
640
Message Meaningfulness
(Ang et al., 2007)
• Participants answer questions online (Mean for 160 respondents per ad)
640
Visual
Flow of emotion (Young, 2004) • Using a picture-sorting technique, participants rank stills from the commercial by the strength
of their emotional reaction
203
Moment-to-Moment
Feelings monitor (Baumgartner • Participants move a cursor on the computer from “Not at all interesting” to “Very interesting”
et al., 1997)
while watching the commercial
640
of the commercials. Also, in addition to
literature review established that there
(Poels and Dewitte, 2006). Using visual
examining trend lines, the facial EMG
are three categories of self-report meth-
self-report methods reduces cognitive
physiological measure of positive emo-
ods that all measure subjective feelings:
processing of participants when com-
tion (the one autonomic measure that
verbal self report, visual self report, and
pared to verbal self report. However,
shows emotional valence) was used to
moment-to-moment measures or mag-
visual self reports can measure only
identify the peak moments of each of the
nitude scaling.
perceptions of emotional reactions.
four commercials.
First, the verbal measures included
in this study were self-reported atti-
The authors used C. Young’s flow-ofemotion picture-sort measure (2004).
• Self report: Self-report measures register
tude toward the ad, attitude toward the
To obtain a flow of emotion infor-
the respondent’s conscious subjective
brand, and message meaningfulness
mation for each commercial, the 203
feeling. A “subjective feeling” is defined
and connectedness (Ang et al., 2007).
respondents
as the consciously felt experience of
Second,
visual
self
report
rated
each
randomly
was
presented image from the deck based
emotions as expressed by the indi-
employed, as the verbal measures
on how they were feeling when they
vidual (Stout and Leckenby, 1986). The
included here suffer from cognitive bias
first watched it. Though with this
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
7
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
visual self-report measure the authors
measures were examined. The authors
First, the patterns of attention (HRT),
attempted to capture a flow of emotion
checked for consistency in participants’
arousal (SC), positive emotion (facial
throughout the commercial, the meas-
physiological and self-reported responses
EMG) and visual self-report and magni-
ure is not a continuous one of emotional
and then aggregated them per measure
tude scaling were examined. Then, the
response.
as they demonstrated high consistency on
authors looked at the qualitative interpre-
Third, the authors added a computer-
each of the individual measures (50 par-
tations and representations of ad meaning
measure.
ticipants for the HRT and SC tests, 40 par-
that resulted from the ZMET technique.
Low-cost and easy to understand and
ticipants for the facial EMG test, 160 per
Then, the results were compared to the
use, moment-to-moment rating instru-
commercial on the self-reported measures
verbal measure results.
ments do provide a prompt continuous
except for the visual self-report measure
Second, the authors examined the
measure of responses to the ads. As the
wherein there were 50 respondents per
slopes and variance explained by each
advertisements were played in their
commercial).
commercial and t-test results to compare
based
magnitude
scaling
entirety, respondents were instructed to
The data were normalized as they were
move their mouse to the right as they
on different scales. Descriptive statistics
become more interested and to the left
were computed for the verbal measure
Third, the results for message connected-
as they become less interested (similar
results for each commercial (attitude
ness and meaningfulness were evaluated.
to Baumgartner, Sujan, and Padgett’s
toward the ad, attitude toward the brand,
The research question and hypotheses are
[1997] “feelings monitor”).
message connectedness, and meaning-
evaluated next.
the three emotion-based commercials with
the argument-based one.
fulness). To compare the magnitude of
• Symbolic: Owing to circumstances out-
emotional reactions to each commercial,
Do Nonverbal Measures Add Value?
side the authors’ control, only three of
the slopes of the resulting trend lines per
To answer the central research question of
the commercials were examined via
measure were computed and the variance
the study, the authors looked at the pat-
the ZMET technique: the Budweiser
explained in emotional change by expo-
terns of reactions to each commercial using
and Heineken spots from the narrative
sure to the commercial per measure. In
each measure and at the resulting ranking
(more emotional) set and the argument-
addition, t-tests were computed to exam-
of effectiveness per measure. The research
based (more cognitive) Miller Lite com-
ine the differences in results between the
question specifically asked whether the
mercial. Each ZMET interview was a
argument-based Miller Light commer-
nonverbal measure added to the verbal
one-to-one discussion approximately 2
cial and each of the three story-telling
measure results. The study found the non-
hours long. In preparation for the inter-
advertisements.
verbal measures added information that
view, participants were asked to collect
could not be obtained using verbal meas-
(about 10) visual images that represent
FINDINGS
ures alone. In addition, findings suggest
their thoughts and feelings about the
In a quest for the right combination of
commercials (at least in the beer category)
research topic. As a result of this pre-
measures, the authors first explored what
that generate an increase in emotions also
interview work, participants arrived for
each type of measure (corresponding to
score high on attitude toward the ad and
their in-depth interview at an advanced
the three types of reactions) uncovered
attitude toward the brand.
stage of thinking, ready to discuss their
about the responses to the four beer com-
To begin, the authors looked at the pat-
thoughts and feelings. At the end of
mercials. While only broadly comparing
tern of attention paid to the four commer-
the interview, each participant created
the three measure types, these exploratory
cials and the pattern of arousal generated
a summary collage of images with the
findings warrant further investigation
(our HRT and SC measure results). They
assistance of a trained computer graph-
of the specific measures under each type
interpreted that, for the beer category,
ics artist. A brand-meaning map was
to delineate the finer differences among
attention paid to the ad follows a decreas-
constructed for each brand throughout
them. For example, it is likely that not all
ing trend throughout the commercial with
the process.
physiological measures may measure the
at least one peak moment and an upturn
exact same kind or level of emotional reac-
toward the end.
Analysis
tion. More directions for further research
The decreasing trend in physiological
To analyze the data, the resulting emo-
are discussed in the last section of the
reactions may be a natural stimulus nov-
tional responses from the quantitative
article.
elty wear-off effect. Previous studies that
8
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
June 2010
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
In a quest for the right combination of measures, the
While physiological reactions tend to
decrease, participants report an increas-
authors first explored what each type of measure
ing conscious emotional reaction throughout the ad for the narrative commercials.
(corresponding to the three types of reactions)
Self-reported emotional reactions to the
argument-based commercial follow a
uncovered about the responses to the four beer
rather flat pattern again. Evidently, storytelling commercials work differently from
commercials.
argument-based ones.
The upward trend found when using
self-report measures is consistent with the
employed self-report measures found
finding is consistent with the literature on
Baumgartner et al. 1997 patterns of reac-
that both the peak moment and the final
the importance of the final moment as it
tions. They recorded reactions to 30 com-
moment of a commercial have a dis-
shows that for the beer category, viewers
mercials for various products. The slopes
proportionate influence on the evaluation
tend to be more engaged at the end of the
of the trend lines of reactions for the three
of the entire advertisement (Baumgartner
commercial.
narrative commercials are similar across
et al., 1997). In terms of peak moments,
While there was an increase in atten-
visual and moment-to-moment measures
the Bud Light and Heineken commercials
tion and arousal at the final moment for
respectively (See Table 2). As found using
have an obvious emotional peak in terms
all four commercials, emotional peaks
the physiological measures, the trace of
of attention and arousal, the Budweiser
were recorded only for the three narrative-
reactions for the Budweiser commer-
ad has several, and the Miller Lite has
type commercials that told stories. The
cial shows a greater variation in reaction
none.
argument-based Miller Lite commercial
throughout the commercial.
The pattern of physiological reactions
generated no emotional reaction peaks,
The symbolic method (ZMET) was used
shows that the Budweiser commercial
viewers watching it at a steady emotional
to better understand and interpret the
takes viewers on an emotional roller
level. Looking at the traces of the positive
meaning associated with these three com-
coaster while the Miller Lite commercial
emotion (facial EMG measure) for the four
mercials (Budweiser, Heineken, and Miller
works in the opposite way, the SC and HRT
commercials, results show again that the
Lite).
traces showing little variance throughout
commercials for Bud Light and Heineken
the ad. The traces for both attention and
have one strong emotional peak, the Bud-
Tapping into Spontaneous Inferences and
arousal for all four commercials show an
weiser commercial having wide variations
Thoughts with Symbolic Measures
increase in physiological reactions toward
in emotions with several peaks, and the
Symbolic
the end of the commercial. Participants
Miller Lite commercial having no obvi-
with interpretation of brand meaning as
attended more attentively and fully to the
ous emotional peak except for the final
understood after watching the commer-
ending moments of the commercials. This
moment.
cial. Results are presented in metaphors
measurement
results
help
TABLE 2
Slopes and Variances Explained (Adjusted R2) by Commercial Exposure for Physiological and
Self-Report Measures
SC
HRT
Facial EMG
Brand
B
R2
B
R2
Bud Light
–0.0529
87.56
–0.1563
43.14
Heineken
–0.0792
84.54
–0.1838
47.11
Budweiser
0.0029
9.76
–0.016
2.08
Miller Light
0.0016
0.78
–0.0088
8.47
B
Visual
B
R2
B
R2
1.1
0.0314
47.85
0.0083
86.69
2.87
0.0228
20.95
0.0092
87.21
–0.0012
17.81
0.005
7.71
0.0054
63.69
–0.0004
2.32
0.0166
5.03
0.00009
0.0005
–0.001
R2
Moment-to-Moment
June 2010
0.18
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
9
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
associated with the brands and in meaning
reminded me of that and the stupid things
in that situation. Describing the main char-
maps generated from participants’ uncon-
that you and your friends have in common.
acter, one participant said
scious (interpreted by trained researchers
from images selected by the participants)
and conscious associations.
This interpretation of “connection” is
“…there are all these people just surround-
different from the one measured (message
ing, hording around him; they happen to
The metaphor associated with the Bud-
connectedness). Message connectedness
be taking photos of him. They’re looking at
weiser brand after participants seeing the
referred to connecting the situation in the
this guy who’s really handsome, attrac-
“Whassup” commercial was “connection.”
ad to self, while connection as resulting
tive; he’s just a popular guy. So I had
Respondents related Budweiser to vari-
from the ZMET symbolic measure is a
that image, or that perception, of the guy in
ous ways of being connected with one’s
type of social connection, self to others.
this commercial. …he seems like he’s pretty
friends, either by sharing a secret ritual or
The Heineken commercial was the one
through football or sports in general. One
scoring highest on message connected-
participant said
ness, meaning it did a good job of having
confident; he’s pretty self-assured, whether
he’s in a party of all really close friends.
the viewer relate the situation in the ad to
For Miller Lite, the metaphor was
It made me think about just hanging
himself. Using ZMET, a metaphor of “the
“motion.” Participants saw motion in the
out—just being with your friends, and
ideal” was generated for the Heineken
flow of beer in the glass, and the very close
just kind of like hanging out and you are
brand. According to ZMET respondents,
shots gave an immersive feel of surfing
doing nothing but you are actually doing
the ad features the ideal guy at the ideal
on or swimming in the beer. Many of the
something. They are sitting around watch-
party having ideal relationships with
pictures brought in before the Miller Lite
ing football, but they are still doing
those around him. It is only natural our
interviewing phase featured images of
something, they are hanging out. So it
respondents could easily place themselves
waves, water sports, or just active sports
Guy on
computer
Individuality
Each character
looks different
Saying it in a
unique way
Funny
“Wassup!”
Crazy, goofy
Relaxed
Bond with
others
Energy
Guy thing
Back to “normal”
College
Audio of game
Sunday
Drinking beer
with friends
Realistic
I could relate
Budweiser
Figure 2 Meaning Maps Developed during the ZMET Process
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
On weekend
Act stupid
“True”
10
Excitement
is over
Spend time
with friends
Nostalgia
Phone call,
Man with jersey
enters
Room is
dark and
quiet
Have fun
Part of a
group
Budweiser
Ritual
Guy on
the couch
June 2010
Watch football
Important game
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
“Lean back” move
Friendly,
outgoing
Raises
brow
Popular
Suave, smooth
Reminds me
of someone
I know
Cheap
beer
Heineken
Looks
back
Comfort
Points to
brown bag
Goofy,
awkward
Smart
Is it
Bud?
Better beer
Sly,
mischievous
Man greets
partygoers
Beer swap
Anticipation
Try to
Impress
woman
Funny
Free -spirited
Confidence
Intrigue,
mystery
Fake
‘Beginning
of a story’
Eye contact
with woman
Music
Walking in
from street
Excitement
Doesn’t
know her
Sophistication
Sexual
tension
Very
attractive
Heineken
“Smart-assed”
Fraudulent
competition
Clever
Urine
“Lucky you.”
“… the World
Beer Cup”
Clean
Golden color
Holding a Beer
Warm,
comforting
Clear
Decision
Competition
Look Good
Confident
Health
“… 1/2 the carbs
of Bud Light”
Beer pouring
into glass
Wet
Awkward
Cool,
refreshing
Overall
Tempo
Confusing
Text + Voiceover
Beer bubbles
Fast
Stressful
Miller Lite logo
Relaxing
Light
Young,
hip
Club/Party
Energetic,
active
Adrenaline
Wave
Water Sports
Carbonation
Music
Miller Lite
Figure 2 (continued)
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
11
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
in general. Specific items that were menBud Light Ice
tioned during the depth interview were
mapped as they relate to one another. One
5
can see that while the message of beer
4.5
having half the carbs of Bud Light is clear,
the message is awkwardly related to the
brand (See Figure 2).
In summary, to answer the research
the emotional peak(s) of a commercial as
2.5
2
tion. Verbal measurement results show the
Budweiser commercial scores highest on
both attitude toward the ad and attitude
Miller
3.5
3
vide the score of an overall emotional reac-
Budweiser
4
question, nonverbal measures indicate
opposed to the verbal measures that pro-
Heineken
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 3 Skin Conductance Traces
toward the brand measurements.
This superiority of the Budweiser comLinear
(Bud Light Ice)
mercial was not carried over in the nonverbal results. Furthermore, symbolic
measures provide a meaning map for the
4.5
differentiate emotion-based commercials
4
showing a flat pattern of emotional reac-
3
latter finding is supported by the fact that
2.5
est on both B (the slope of the emotional
Linear
(Miller)
3.5
tion for the Miller Light commercial. This
the Miller Light commercial scored low-
Linear
(Budweiser)
5
brand, and the other nonverbal measures
from argument-based commercials by
Linear
(Heineken)
2
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
reaction) and R2 (the variance in emotion explained by the exposure to the
commercial) on all nonverbal measures
Figure 4 Skin Conductance Trend Lines
(as presented in Table 2). Thus, the first
hypothesis is supported. The traces of
Bud Light Ice
emotional reactions (SC, HRT, moment-tomoment and visual self report) and trend
Heineken
Budweiser
Miller
5
lines are presented (See Figures 3 to 10).
3
Do Emotion-Based Commercials Score
Higher on Nonverbal Measures than
Argument-Based Ones?
Next, the authors examined t-test results
from comparing reactions to the Miller
1
–1
Light commercial (argument-based) to
each of the three emotion-based commercials. The results indicate no consistent
–3
0
5
10
15
pattern (See Table 3). The argument-based
commercial scored higher on attention and
12
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
June 2010
Figure 5 Heart Rate Turbulence Traces
20
25
30
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
Linear
(Bud Light Ice)
Linear
(Heineken)
Linear
(Budweiser)
Both practitioners and
Linear
(Miller)
7
academics are convinced
5
affect plays an important
3
part in the processing of
1
brand messages.
–1
–3
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
arousal than the emotion-based commercials and lower on visual self report and
moment-to-moment tracking. It appears
Figure 6 Heart Rate Turbulence Trend Lines
each measure assesses a different aspect or
emotional reaction. Thus, hypotheses 2a to
2d were not supported, and hypothesis 2e
Bud Light Ice
Heineken
Budweiser
Miller
was.
4.25
To conclude, the argument-based Miller
Light
commercial
scored
consistently
lower than the emotion-based commercials on all nonverbal measures on the
range of emotional reaction generated.
4
While storytelling commercials took viewers on an emotional roller coaster, the
argument-based one generated a flat pat-
3.75
tern of emotion even if at a sometimes
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 7 Moment-to-Moment Self-Report Traces
higher level than the lower points of the
others.
Emotion-Based versus Argument-Based
Verbal measurement results show the
Budweiser commercial scores highest on
Linear
(Bud Light Ice)
Linear
(Heineken)
Linear
(Budweiser)
Linear
(Miller)
both attitude toward the ad and attitude
toward the brand measurements. This
4.25
superiority was not present, however, in
the results on either message connectedness or meaningfulness. The Heineken
commercial connected best with respond-
4
ents, and the Miller Lite ad presented the
most meaningful message to participants
in this study (See Table 4).
3.75
Thus, hypotheses 3 and 4 are supported
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
about an emotion-based commercial scoring highest on message connectedness and
the argument-based commercial scoring
Figure 8 Moment-to-Moment Self-Report Trend Lines
highest on message meaningfulness.
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
13
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
DISCUSSION AND PRACTICAL
Bud Light Ice
Heineken
Budweiser
Miller
IMPLICATIONS
4.5
Although
self-report
measures—espe-
cially verbal self report—have been used
commercially for decades in advertis-
4
ing research, physiological and symbolic
measures of advertising effectiveness are
not employed on a large scale.
3.5
It is possible the industry’s left-brain
bias is inhibiting the intuitive and creative
side of advertising and brand communi-
3
0
5
10
15
20
25
cation. Self-report measures shed light on
30
the conscious interpretation of reactions
to the commercials (i.e., what I think I felt
Figure 9 Visual Self-Report Traces
during/after seeing the commercial). Selfreport measures based on subjective feelings may not always be able to capture
Linear
(Bud Light Ice)
Linear
(Heineken)
Linear
(Budweiser)
lower-order emotions in an accurate way,
Linear
(Miller)
although these lower-order emotions may
4.5
have a substantial influence on consumer
decisions.
Although self-report measures are more
likely to evaluate commercials on a pre-
4
determined scale of descriptors, symbolic
measures leave the door open for painting
a picture of ad response from the variety of
3.5
items automatically triggered in the brain
by the exposure. Symbolic measures point
to specific items from the inner workings
3
of the brain that were triggered by the
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
commercial.
Physiological measures provide the confirmation of the initial emotional arousal
Figure 10 Visual Self-Report Trend Lines
and of the emotional peaks that are then
TABLE 3
T-test Results from Comparing Argument-Based (Miller) to Storytelling (Heineken, Bud Light,
and Budweiser Respectively) Commercials’ Physiological and Self-Report Measure Results
SC
HRT
t
p
Mean
Facial EMG
p
Mean
Miller Light
4.221
Heineken
3.483
3.356
0.006*
1.738
2.529
0.028*
4.648
–7.136
0.000*
3.861
–1.893
0.081
Bud Light
3.939
1.953
0.077
1.993
2.419
0.034*
4.631
–4.138
0.000*
3.525
1.592
Budweiser
4.027
3.427
0.002*
1.298
5.212
0.000*
4.578
9.058
0.000*
N/A
3.425
*Significant at 0.05 level
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
June 2010
Mean
t
p
4.614
Mean
Moment-to-Moment
Brand
14
t
Visual
t
p
t
p
4.040
–6.830
0.000*
0.135
4.054
–8.853
0.000*
N/A
3.993
–4.111
0.000*
3.669
Mean
3.929
N/A
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
TABLE 4
Means for Verbal Self-Report Measures
is definitely warranted into the results of
our self-report measures to confirm the
superiority of the Budweiser commercial
Bud Light
Heineken
Budweiser
Miller Lite
(highest Aad and Ab). Considering the
Verbal Measure
Mean
N
Mean
N
Mean
N
Mean
N
wide range of methodologies covered in
Aad
4.49
160
3.23
160
4.8
160
2.34
160
this study, the authors did not include a
Ab
4.49
160
4.41
160
4.74
160
4.11
160
Message Connectedness
5.06
160
6.15
160
5.2
160
2.59
160
Message Meaningfulness
3.29
160
4.35
160
2.96
160
4.68
160
full spectrum of variables in the verbal
measure to cover a broader range of perceived (cognitively processed) reactions to
the commercials. Message connectedness
and meaningfulness along with message
reflected in both symbol generation and
presented earlier, physiological measures
novelty are part of what Ang et al. (2007)
descriptor evaluations. The use of the vari-
are unbiased and tap into the unconscious
labeled the ad creativity cube. In addition to
ous methods will probably differ depend-
while symbolic and visual self-report
these three aspects of a commercial that
ing on the information wanted, from
measures tap into the consumers’ spon-
measure creativity, there are other aspects
looking to sketch a personality of a brand
taneous inferences. Hence, when a brand
that impact Aad and Ab (e.g., propensity
as presented in the commercial when con-
message stirs emotions, nonverbal meas-
of the ad to generate word-of-mouth,
sistent brand communication is desired,
ures will indicate so. This study found
social relevance).
to identifying those frames of a commer-
nonverbal measures provide additional
Thus, advertising messages generating
cial that definitely should not be cut when
information (to verbal measure results)
emotions motivate behavior (consistent
editing, to focusing on utilizing ad time
about the consumer’s emotional reaction
with Passyn and Sujan 2006). As emotions
most effectively to generate preferred pat-
and can indicate whether a brand message
play at least the same level of importance
terns of emotional reactions.
is emotion-based. It is argued in the first
as conscious rational thought in consumer
With this exploratory study from the
part of this article that behavior is deter-
reactions to brand messages, the authors
beer product category, the authors sought
mined by feelings and judgments, which
strongly encourage further research of the
to examine what kind of information about
are in turn determined by (mostly) uncon-
various methods of emotional reactions
emotional reactions to television commer-
scious physiological and mental responses.
that would compare them and pinpoint
cials is provided by each type of measure.
Hence, future studies should link emotion
and refine their utility.
This article presents a case study for one
scores obtained via nonverbal methods to
Zaltman (2003) argues that high-impact
product category. Further testing for other
in-market brand performance (i.e., sales or
communication is, in fact, a co-creative
product categories is warranted.
at least intention to purchase).
process that is highly emotionally driven.
With this study, the authors examine
depth
The meaning of a commercial is co-created
whether nonverbal measures of emotional
to our understanding of how commer-
Physiological
measures
add
by the advertising creative department
reactions provide an improved way to
cials work by allowing us to tap into the
and the customer (Lobler et al., 2005).
assess advertising effectiveness compared
moment-by-moment emotional reactions
The researchers believe the co-creation of
to the traditional verbal method. There
commercials generate. The story-oriented
meaning follows a process, where the story
are at least two reasons for conducting a
Budweiser, Bud Light, and Heineken com-
told is the initiating part of the commu-
study on the benefits of nonverbal meas-
mercials work on a highly emotional basis
nication, and the customer’s experience
ures of advertising effectiveness. First,
generating peaks of emotional engage-
adds to the meaning of the communicated
the physiological and magnitude-scal-
ment. Baumgartner and his colleagues
message—hence, co-creation of meaning.
ing measurements presented earlier are
(1997) found that the length of the com-
This co-creation process involves the
authentic continuous measures that reveal
mercial had no impact whatsoever if not
stories, experiences, and rich symbols
the changes of levels of emotions along
leading to an emotional peak. Respond-
in the minds of the audience connecting
the advertisement length and the peak
ents might report no new product learn-
with those crafted into the commercials.
reaction moments in addition to the over-
ing in follow-up questioning, but they
ZMET findings in this study show that the
all evaluation of the ad and brand result-
may show high commercial (Aad) and
two tested commercials that told a story
ing from verbal evaluations. Second, as
brand (Ab) liking. Further investigation
generated strong brand associations and
June 2010
JOURNAL OF ADVERTISING RESEARCH
15
MEASURABLE EMOTIONS: HOW TELEVISION ADS REALLY WORK
relevant brand metaphor. Storytelling in
insights into target audience, emphasis
Social Cognition?” Journal of Consumer Psychol-
advertising enhances anchoring of the
on brand personality, and the addition of
ogy 14 (2004): 385–404.
brand name into memory because con-
new tools that would help with develop-
sumers co-create the meaning of the brand
ing “narrative lines” for the brand.
together with the advertiser at an emo-
Christensen, G. L. and J. C. Olson. “Mapping Consumers‘ Mental Models with ZMET.”
tional level. The argument-based Miller
ANCA CRISTINA MICU is an assistant professor of
Lite commercial worked on a cognitive
marketing at the Welch College of Business, Sacred
level and, hence, it did not generate rel-
Heart University. She has worked or consulted for
Cuthbert, B. N, M. M. Bradley, and P. J.
evant brand associations at a subconscious
many companies including Time Inc., The Estee
Lang. “Probing Picture Perception: Activation
level. Once the metaphor describing the
Lauder Companies, and BBDO. With her research, she
and Emotion.” Psychophysiology 33 (1996): 103–111.
meaning of a brand is known, all com-
is looking to understand the “human” element in the
munication messages from the marketer
consumer purchase decision-making process.
should be consistent with this meaning
assigned to the brand by the consumer.
The authors believe advertisers today
have to take a fresh look at their target
prospects as human beings with both
emotions and thoughts. The advertising
tion, unconscious thought, and recognition of symbols and metaphors that are
not filtered through words and cognitive
thought. Scholars Mooradian, Matzler and
Szykman (2008) suggest that “there may,
in fact, be different empathetic responses
Escalas, J. E. “Narrative Processing: Building
Consumer Connections to Brands.” Journal of
JOSEPH PLUMMER has held many management roles at
Consumer Psychology 14, 1-2 (2004): 168–180.
McCann, D’Arcy, Y&R, and Leo Burnett agencies. He
is currently marketing professor at Columbia Business
Escalas, J. E., and M. F. Luce. “Understanding
School and an associate at Olson Zaltman Associates.
the Effects of Process-Focused versus OutcomeFocused Thought in Response to Advertising.”
research industry needs to more openly
adopt new measures to capture emo-
Psychology and Marketing 19, 7 (2002): 477–501.
Journal of Consumer Research 31, 2 (2004): 274–285.
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