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Chapters 1-5 Study Guide
Descartes: Cogito Ergo Sum
I think, therefore I am
Subjective cognition is
primary
Solipsism: subjective
cognition is all there
is!
Objective Knowledge is a
Consensus..
Surprise! There is no “objective” knowledge!
There is only a consensus among those who
choose to believe in the power of reproducible
scientific experiments and the data they generate,
to establish certain facts, that we can then
generally accept, even if we can’t all quite agree
upon their actual meaning..
The Scientific Method

make an observation,

form a hypothesis,

collect data,

analyze data,

draw conclusions.
No Harm in Trying:
The History of Psychology
No Psychology in the Ancient World (and No
Church in the Wild!). But plenty of Philosophy:
Buddha: Diagnosed suffering as arising in
patterns of thoughts, proscribed treatment (lose
the attachments!)
Greeks, etc: Where / what is the mind? Reality
real? Nature vs. Nurture / Empiricism. Basis of
logic, reasoning. Though <-> emotion. Reason
vs. Empiricism.
Rationalism vs. Empiricism
Rationalism: Deduce what is true based on
logical principles, axioms, etc. (Descartes)
Empiricism: Learn what is true based on
experience. (Locke)
Can’t we all just get along!? Clearly you need
both..
Hey, How about some Data!
Wilhelm Wundt (1879): First dude to actually
collect scientific data about human behavior!
i.e., the first true Psychologist.
But unfortunately, the data was all subjective!
Titchener: structuralism = subjective contents
of experience, through introspection
James: functionalism = largely theoretical (vs.
experimental) ideas about specific functions of
mind, instead of contents.
Hey, How about some
Objective Data! (1913-1950’s)
Behaviorists: rejection of introspection – can
only study and theorize about what is objectively
observable: behavior! Stimulus -> Response
Pavlov
Skinne
r
Watson
Cognitive Counter-Revolution
(1960’s)
Cognitive(ism): Yeah,
maybe there is actually
something going on
inside the mind..
Behaviorism:
Stimuli
Responses
Cognitive Psychology:
Stimuli
o
Stimulus (memorize this list)

o
lion, onion, Bill, firefighter, carrot,
zebra, John, clerk, Tom, nurse, cow
Response (recall)

o
Mental Processes
lion, zebra, cow, onion, carrot,
firefighter, clerk , nurse, John, Bill, Tom
Mental Processes

Strategies, grouping, reorganization, etc
Responses
Enter the Brain..
1960’s-80’s: Cognitive “boxology” based on idea
that mind is a digital computer (sure, why not..)
1990’s – now: Cognitive Neuroscience!
Other Historical Trends

Freud and psychoanalysis (1900-1920):


Gestalt psychology (1910-1940)


role of the unconscious, tripartite structure: id, ego,
superego
Whole is different than sum of its parts: emergence!
Rogers, Maslow: Humanism (1950’s – now)

Motivation, individual feelings, potential for growth

Piaget: Developmental Stages, etc (1960’s)

And many others..
Answering Questions
Practical techniques for answering Psychological
questions..
“Ve have vays of making you talk..”

Descriptive

Correlational

Experimental
Pros / Cons
Descriptive: good: doesn’t raise any suspicions
(“naturalistic”) bad: not much to go on..
Correlational: good: also “naturalistic” (no suspicions),
more precise understanding of data. bad: other factors
at work! e.g., old marrieds, etc the third variable
problem: correlation does not equal causation!!
Experimental: good: really figure out the truth! bad:
create false truth! e.g., bad questions = bad answers
(“does this dress make me look fat?”) external validity
True Experiments
Avoids 3rd variable problem, determines true
causal relationships!

Random assignment to conditions


1 or more control conditions


Avoids 3rd variable of pre-existing conditions..
Must compare manipulation to something
Control over confounds

Eliminate all possible other 3rd variables
Possible
subjects
Experimental
Group
Random assignment
controls for differences
Control
Group
Study and testing
conditions
Identical conditions
control extraneous
variables
Study and testing
conditions
Music
Independent variable
(Cause)
No
Music
Behavior
(test scores)
Dependent variable
(Effect)
Behavior
(test scores)
Is there a difference?
Experimental Design
Independent variable: what you manipulate

e.g., does coffee improve cognition: it’s the (amount
of) coffee!
Dependent variable: what you measure

Some measure of cognition..
Neuron Summary



Neurons integrate electrical signals
(depolarization) received via synapses on
their dendrites, from axons of other neurons
When membrane potential exceeds threshold,
action potential (spike) is sent down axon,
triggering release of neurotransmitter in
synapse, which opens ion channels on
receiving (postsynaptic) neuron
GABA is main inhibitory neurotransmitter,
Glutamate is main excitatory neurotransmitter
Neurotransmitter Terms

Agonist: acts like a given neurotransmitter

Antagonist: blocks receptors for given NT

Reuptake: takes NT back out of synapse

Neuromodulator: a broadly-released
neurotransmitter that has widespread
modulatory effects on the brain
Neuromodulators and Drugs
(receptor agonists)



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Acetylcholine (ACh): muscles, attention, learning,
memory (nicotine)
Dopamine (DA): when to learn, based on reward
prediction errors (cocaine)
Norephinephrine (NE): attention, engagement
(speed)
Serotonin (5HT): Mood, sleep, appetite, sex, stress
(SSRI, LSD = waking dream)

Oxytocin: social modulation, labor (pitocin)

Endorphins, Substance P: pain (heroin)
Nature Nurture Summary

Genes: made from DNA, determine how body
develops (the program)



Phenotype: measurable traits (IQ, ADHD..)
Behavior(al) genetics: study of genetic vs.
environment influence on behavior, etc


Genotype = all genes; Alleles = different versions of gene
Identical vs. fraternal twins vs. unrelated siblings
Heritability (h2): amount of variance between people
that is due to genes (0..1) (low variance = more h2)

Almost everything has some heritability.. often ~.5
Heritability
h2 = proportion of variance
explained by genetics
Variance depends on the
population you measure!
h2 much higher in WEIRD
populations (western,
educated, industrialized,
rich, democratic) because
variance is lower!
Nature Nurture Summary




Environment: (shared = family, vs. unique) –
everything outside of genes that affects you..
Everything (genes, environment) typically has
an effect on everything.. e.g., IQ = 50/50
Gene / Environment Correlation: environment
affected by genes.. (geeks!)
Gene / Environment Interaction: different
people respond differently to same environment
Evolutionary Psychology Summary



Adaptations: changes to solve specific
problems in the (old, evolutionary) environment
Environmental mismatch: fat & sugar used to
be good for you.. 
Sexual behavior, gender differences may be
stronger targets for adaptations (double
standards, etc)
Development Summary

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Brain maturation = synaptic pruning, goes from
sensorimotor up to higher areas (prefrontal cortex is
last = Control area)
Overall Stages: Sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operations, formal operations
Temperament: reasonably stable, effortful control,
negative affect (avoid), extroversion (approach)
Attachment: secure, avoidant, insecure/ambivalent:
reflects personality vs. shapes it? (Reflects!)
Adolescents: lack PFC for making good decisions..
The Nurture Assumption
• Very little evidence of parental
influence on children, beyond
genetics
• Genetic / environment correlation?
• Peers matter the most of
environmental influences
• Which language to immigrants learn?
• Who did you talk most w/ in High
School?
• What data tells us these things?
Temperament: Personality
vs Big 5 in Chapter 12
Effortful control: Conscientiousness
Negative emotionality: Neuroticism / not-Agreeableness

“avoid” dimension
Extraversion: Extraversion / Openness

“approach” dimension
Basic “parameters” on motivational system..
Attachment Theory
Nice metaphor, but likely largely bogus..
We don’t see entire world through lens of mother
(how many others fit the mother role??)
Strange Situation and Attachment Styles:
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Secure: Need mommy, miss mommy, all good
with strangers as long as mommy is around..
Avoidant: Disengaged, even from mommy..
Insecure-Ambivalent: Wary, anxious, mad at
mommy..
Moral Development
(basic drives to make society work?)
Kohlberg:

Preconventional: reward / punishment
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Conventional: respect for law, norms, rules
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Postconventional: abstract principles and beliefs
Haidt:
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Care / harm: like reward / punishment – basic
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Fairness / justice: no cheaters! Or cheated!

Group Loyalty: love the in-group, hate the out-group

Respect for authority: stay in line!

Purity and sanctity: rules about sex, food, nudity, etc
Basic senses
Sense
Stimulus
Receptors
Vision
(sight)
Light
(photons in waves)
Rods and Cones
Audition
(hearing)
Vibration
(sound waves)
Hair cells in cochlea
Gustation
(taste)
Chemicals in food
Taste buds in papillae
Somesthesis
(skin senses)
Touch, pressure, hotcold, painful stimuli
Free nerve endings in
skin
Olfaction
(smell)
Airborne chemical
molecules
Hair cells in olfactory
epithelium
Psychophysics

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Absolute threshold

Lowest level of stimulus intensity for 50% response

“How low can you go?”
Just-noticeable difference (JND)

Difference in stimulus intensity for 50% response

“Ch Ch Ch.. Changes”
Weber’s law: JND proportional to stimulus intensity

Easier to tell small weight diff between two light objs, vs. two heavy
The First Sense: Vision
Light goes through pupil, size of which controlled by iris, lens focuses on
retina, containing rod (fast, b/w) and cone (slow, color) photoreceptors.
LGN = thalamus, V1 = primary visual cortex.
Gestalt Principles
Is Perception Veridical? No..
Perception is a construction of high-level
abstractions from limited data – not veridical
Experience-based learning plays a critical role in
shaping perception

Cultural, language effects: Muller-Lyer illusion

Also, top-down expectations and attention!
Audition
Basilar membrane: retina of the ear, located in cochlea
hair cells transduce sound, location along membrane = frequency
Interaural time / level differences = auditory localization
Olfaction, Taste, Touch
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Olfactory receptors detect chemicals, including
pheromones; olfactory bulb -> piriform cortex
Taste buds: sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami?,
fatty? -> insula cortex
Tactition: “touch” – mechanoreceptors,
Thermoception: heat – thermoreceptors,
Nociception: pain – A-delta (first), C-fibers
(second) -> somatosensory cortex
CU: Chris Lowry: warmth -> serotonin happy cells