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Learning
Chapter 5
ENDURING ISSUES
Stability–
Change
• To what extent do
organisms change
over the course of
their lives?
ENDURING ISSUES
Diversity–
Universality
• Events that shape
learning vary
among individuals.
ENDURING ISSUES
Nature–
Nurture
• Learning is
influenced by an
organism’s inborn
characteristics.
ENDURING ISSUES
• Learning can affect our
Mind–Body
physical health by
influencing how our body
responds to disease.
LEARNING
Learning is a process by which
experience or practice results in
a relatively permanent change in
behavior or potential behavior.
LEARNING
Three types
of learning
discussed
in this
chapter:
• Classical
Conditioning
• Operant
Conditioning
• Cognitive
Learning
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning
Classical Conditioning (CC)
• type of learning in which response naturally
elicited by one stimulus comes to be elicited by
different, formerly neutral stimulus
• type of learning discovered by Russian
physiologist Ivan Pavlov who was studying
digestion in dogs
Pavlov’s Apparatus
Elements of Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned
Unconditioned
stimulus (US)
response (UR)
• stimulus that
• response that takes
invariably causes
place in organism
organism to respond
whenever
in specific way
unconditioned
stimulus occurs
Elements of Classical Conditioning
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
• Originally neutral
Conditioned response
(CR)
• After conditioning, the
stimulus paired with
response organism
unconditioned stimulus
produces when
and eventually produces
conditioned stimulus is
the desired response in
presented
organism when
presented alone
The Classical Conditioning Process
Establishing a Classically Conditioned
Response
Repeated pairings
• Pairings of unconditioned stimulus
(US) and cue before the US
becomes conditioned response (CS)
Intermittent pairing
• Conditioned stimulus and
unconditioned stimulus on only
portion of learning trials
Response Acquisition
Classical Conditioning in Humans
Desensitization therapy
• conditioning technique
Phobias
• intense, irrational fears of
particular things or situations
• learned and unlearned
through classical
conditioning
• designed to gradually reduce
anxiety about particular
object or situation
Classical Conditioning Is Selective
Since people can develop
phobias through classical
conditioning, why don’t we
acquire phobias of everything that
is paired with harm?
Classical Conditioning Is Selective
Seligman explained CC
by concept of
preparedness
Conditioned taste
aversion
biological readiness to
learned association
learn certain associations
between taste of a
because of their survival
certain food and feeling
advantages
of nausea and revulsion
Operant Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Operant (or instrumental) conditioning
• behaviors emitted in presence of
specific stimuli
• earns rewards or avoids
punishments
Thorndike’s “Puzzle Box”
Elements of Operant Conditioning
Essential components of
operant conditioning
• emitted behavior or operant behavior
• consequence
Consequences
Types of consequences
Reinforcers
• stimuli that follow behavior and increases likelihood that behavior
will be repeated
Punishers
• stimuli that follows behavior and decreases likelihood that
behavior will be repeated
Law of Effect
Law of effect (principle of reinforcement)
• Thorndike’s theory
• Consistently rewarded behavior will be “stamped
in”
• Learned behavior and behavior that brings about
discomfort will be “stamped out”
Establishing an Operantly Conditioned
Response
Skinner box
• used with animal
Operantly conditioned
• limits available responses
response
• increases likelihood that
• sometimes difficult to
establish
• behavior has to be emitted
first
desired response will occur
In the real world, the environment
cannot be easily controlled, so
operant conditioning is usually
established through the process
of shaping.
Shaping
Shaping
• process of reinforcing
successive approximations to
desired behavior
The Skinner Box
A Closer Look at Reinforcement
Types of reinforcers
•positive reinforcers
•negative reinforcers
Punishment
Punishment
• any event whose
presence
Reinforcement
• strengthens
behavior
Negative
reinforcement
• strengthens
behavior by
decreases
removing
likelihood that
something
ongoing behavior
unpleasant from
will recur
environment
Punishment
sufficient
without being
cruel
swift
consistent
Effective
punishment
Punishment
can backfire by
stirring up
negative feelings
cannot unteach
can teach
unwanted
aggression
behaviors
Punishment
drawbacks
Learned Helplessness
failure to avoid or escape from
unpleasant or aversive stimulus
Learned
helplessness
occurs as result of previous
exposure to unavoidable
painful stimuli
Shaping Behavioral Change
Through Biofeedback
Operant conditioning can
be useful in controlling
biological functions.
Biofeedback
• uses monitoring devices
Neurofeedback
• uses biofeedback
to provide precise
technique that monitors
information about internal
brain waves with use of
physiological processes
EEG
• teaches people to gain
• teaches people to gain
voluntary control over
voluntary control over
these functions
their brain wave activity
Factors Shared by Classical
and Operant Conditioning
The Importance of Contingencies
Factors Shared by Classical
and Operant Conditioning
Contingency
Relationship in which one
event depends on another
Contingency perceived between CS and
US because of predictive information CS
conditioning
In classical
provides
CS must precede and occur in close
proximity with US for this contingency to
occur
In operant conditioning
• learner must perceive
connection between
Frequency of
reinforcement
• important
• behaviors not
performing certain
reinforced continuously
voluntary action and
persists longer
receiving particular
reward or punishment
schedule of reinforcement
Operant Conditioning
fixed-interval schedule
Other Concepts
variable-interval schedule
fixed-ratio schedule
variable-ratio schedule
Response Patterns to Schedules of
Reinforcement
Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery
Extinction and
spontaneous recovery
extinction
can occur with
classical and operant
conditioning
spontaneous recovery
Extinguishing operantly conditioned
responses depends on
• Strength of original learning
Operant Conditioning
• Pattern of reinforcement
• Variety of setting
• Complexity of the behavior
• Learning through punishment vs. reinforcement
Response Acquisition and Extinction in
Classical Conditioning
Stimulus Control, Generalization,
and Discrimination
Generalization and discrimination can occur
with classical and operant conditioning
• stimulus control
• stimulus generalization
• stimulus discrimination
Response generalization
• giving response that is somewhat
different from response originally
learned to that stimulus
• occurs with operant conditioning
New Learning Based on Original Learning
Stimulus generalization
and discrimination can
serve as basis for new
learning
New Learning Based on Original Learning
In classical
In operant
conditioning
conditioning
• new learning
• secondary
occurs through
reinforcers allow
higher order
for new learning
conditioning
Cognitive Learning
Cognitive Learning
depends on mental processes that are
learning
Cognitive
not directly observable
observable and measurable learning
mental processes in learning
Latent Learning and Cognitive Maps
Tolman study (1930)
• rats in maze showed they were
capable of latent learning
• hypothesized that the rats used
cognitive map
Tolman and Honzik Study
Insight and Learning Sets
examined another aspect of
Gestalt psychologist
cognitive learning: sudden
Wolfgang Köhler
insight into a problem’s
solution
confirmed that many other
Subsequent studies
animals and humans display
insight
Learning by Observing
Social learning theorists
learning by observing other people’s
observational (or vicarious) learning
behavior based on the punishment
and rewards others receive
reinforcement or punishment
vicarious reinforcement (or
punishment)
experienced by models affects
willingness of others to perform
behaviors learned by observing those
models
Children imitated aggressive
behaviors they observed
Significantly more boys and girls
Bandura study (1965)
exhibited imitative aggressive
behaviors when rewarded
Study important implications including
how not to teach aggression
unintentionally to children
Results of Bandura’s Study