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ARCH 1616 Between Sahara and Sea: North Africa from Human Origins to Islam Brett Kaufman [email protected] Office Hours: Tuesdays, 2:30-4:30 pm Rhode Island Hall 007 Rome and its North African Provinces Roman expansion during the Republic Roman approach to provinces in general Roman North Africa Rome Sardinia Sicily Mauretania Carthage (Tunis) Africa Proconsularis Colonial timeline Foundation of Carthage ~800 BC Carthaginian expansion ~580-201 BC Rome destroys Carthage 146 BC Roman settlement begins to intensify 46 BC Phoenician; Canaanite Punic; Carthaginian Libyo-Phoenician Neo-Punic Zita Tripoli Lepcis Magna Cyrenaica 3 Reconstruction of remains of mud huts found on the Palatine Hill in Rome, dating to the 8th C BCE The Growth of Rome during the Republic (~5th-1st C BCE) Early Relations between Rome and Carthage • 508-507 BCE: First treaty between Rome and Carthage • 348 BCE: Renewal of earlier treaty • 306 BCE: Third treaty, barring Carthaginians from Italy and Romans from Sicily • 279 BCE: Fourth treaty to fight against a king from Illyria named Pyrrhus Roman approach to provinces in general The Roman Empire ca. 117 CE “If a man were called upon to fix that period in the history of the world during which the condition of the human race was most happy and prosperous, he would, without hesitation, name that which elapsed from the deaths of Domitian to the accession of Commodus.” (Edward Gibbon 1776) “Throughout the entire empire, in provinces and towns, we see that each local group of people has its own religious rituals and worships local gods. . . The Romans, however, worship all the gods in the world. . . When they have captured a town, even in the fierceness of victory, the Romans respect the deities of the conquered people. They invite to Rome gods from all over the world and make them their own, raising altars even to unknown gods and to the shades of the dead. And thus, while the Romans were adopting the religious rites of all nations, they also earned for themselves dominion.” ~Minucius Felix, Octavius “Romanization” “Julius Agricola, Roman Governor in Britain under the Emperor Domitian introducing the Roman Arts and Sciences into England, the Inhabitants of which are astonished and soon become fond of the Arts and manners of their cruel Invaders.” Agricola by J. Goldar (from E. Barnard’s “The New, Comprehensive, Impartial and Complete History of England.” (1790)) “[The Romans] are few in number, scared and bewildered, staring round at the sky itself and the sea and the forests, all strange to them—they are in a way like men imprisoned and chained, and the gods have delivered them into our hands....There is nothing beyond them to fear: just empty forts, coloniae of old men, towns sick and disunited between unwilling subjects and unjust rulers.” Tacitus, Agricola (XXXII) Speech of Scottish leader Calgacus to his army before the great battle at Mons Graupius that Agricola and his Roman army fought against the Caledonians “They have pillaged the world: when the land has nothing left for men who ravage everything, they scour the sea. If an enemy is rich, they are greedy, if he is poor, they crave glory. Neither East nor West can sate their appetite. They are the only people on earth to covet wealth and poverty with equal craving. They plunder, they butcher, they ravish, and call it by the lying name of ‘empire’. They make a desert and call it ‘peace’.” (XXX). Thuburbo Maius, Tunisia “[Agricola’s] object was to accustom them to a life of peace and quiet by the provision of amenities. He therefore gave official assistance to the building of temples, public squares and good houses. He educated the sons of the chiefs in the liberal arts, and expressed a preference for British ability as compared to the trained skills of the Gauls. The result was that instead of loathing the Latin language they became eager to speak it effectively. In the same way, our national dress came into favour and the toga was everywhere to be seen. And so the population was gradually led into the demoralizing temptation of arcades, baths and sumptuous banquets. The unsuspecting Britons spoke of such novelties as ‘civilization', when in fact they were only a feature of their enslavement.” Tacitus Agricola XXI Urban design of Rome replicated in the provinces Roman North Africa Was the earth really salted at Carthage? Roman theater at Carthage Roman amphitheater at Carthage Antonine Baths at Carthage Roman Villas at Carthage Roman Aqueduct at Carthage Not salted, watered The Third Punic War and the Jugurthine War • Massinissa reigned for 55 years and built up a sizeable Numidian kingdom, while he also proved a faithful ally of the Roman Senate • Third Punic War: 149-146 BCE • Massinissa died in 148 BCE and his kingdom was divided up between his 3 sons • The nephews of one of these sons was Jugurtha, who began to consolidate power in Numidia, provoking war with Rome from 112-106 BCE • The Roman victory increased its subjugation of North Africa, although Numidia did not become a province until 46 BCE Loss of Numidian independence and early revolts • The Roman victory increased its subjugation of North Africa, although Numidia did not become a province until after Battle of Thapsus in 46 BCE under Julius Caesar. North Africa loses its independence • Augustus establishes Africa Proconsularis and grants Juba II Mauretania in 25 BCE, who along with the Third Augustan Legion (21 CE) preserved some stability. • 19 BC Proconsul L. Cornelius Balbus awarded a triumph for defeating Garamantes in the Fezzan, Libya • 17 CE, a deserter named Tacfarinas revolted using guerilla tactics to which the Romans had to adapt, quelled in 23 AD • Emperor Claudius makes Mauretania part of Empire in 41 CE The Roman Provinces of Africa Juba I King of Numidia, 60-46 BCE Coins of Juba I – bearded king with diadem around head and scepter over his shoulder – lettering reads “Rex Juba” Sided with Pompey against Caesar in Battle of Thapsus Battle of Thapsus Caesar lost 50 soldiers, Pompey 10,000 Juba II Brought to be raised in the Roman court, send by Augustus to rule Mauretania from Cherchel Cherchel Thugga/Dougga Utica Kerkouane Carthage Dougga Thugga: The Imperial Cult “Sacred to the Divine Augustus and Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus. . . Julius Venustus, son of Thinoba, has accomplished all the magistracies, priest of the Divine Augustus. . . the Senate and the people. . . have bestowed him freely with the insignia of the sufes. . .” ILS 6797: Altar to the Divine Augustus and Claudius, ca. 48 CE donated by Julius Venustus, son of Faustus Thinoba, members of an elite indigenous family. The father possessed a half-Latin, half-African name, but gave a fully Latin name to his son, who also became a priest of the divine emperor Augustus Capitoline, Thugga: Inscription “Sacred to Jupiter Optimus maximus, Juno Regina, Minerva Augusta; on behalf of the health of the emperors Marcus Antoninus Augustus and Lucius Verus Augustus, victors over Armenia, Media, and Parthia; L. Marcius Simplex and L. Marcius Simplex Regillianus built at their own expense.” (166-169 CE) The establishment of a Capitoline cult at Thugga in the second century CE is extremely significant, for at this time, Thugga did not even have the status of municipia, yet here we have one of the most potent and fundamental expressions of Roman religious identity by a new citizen, endowing this provincial community with a direct link to the gods of Rome Cult of Saturn, Thugga ILAfr 551 Restoration of the Shrine of Saturn “Sacred to Saturn Augustus; the civitas [the indigenous population] of Thugga has restored the temple, having collapsed from age, with their own money and has dedicated the same.” The cult of Saturn=Ba’al was one of the most well-established cults in Proconsular Africa, on both a public and private scale, and particularly noted among African worshippers, both lower and upper class. The Romanized Punic cult carried out worship “on behalf of the health of the emperor” again linking them to imperial cult. Inscription to Concord, Frugifer, Liber Pater and Neptune (Thugga) Concordia is the most well-known, particularly under Hadrian, already with two shrines at Thugga, and not to mention was the patron deity at Carthage. The other deities, although bearing Latin names, may actually be connected to pre-Roman divinities. Frugifer is simply an epithet meaning “crop-bearing”, and outside Africa it nd Century CE is usually paired with the name of an2actual deity. The title is found alone in over 20 inscriptions within Africa, however, suggesting the presence of an earlier local deity with a Latinized name. Constantine monogram from Djerba