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Transcript
Outline the Role of Hannibal throughout the Second Punic War and assess the impact of his leadership on the Roman PopulaceThe legend of Hannibal Barca today remains one of the most celebrated in history. Stories of his campaigns in the Second Punic War such as his crossing of the Alps, or the battle of Cannae continue to marvel historians at the genius of his leadership. However, Hannibal’s success would eventually be downtrodden by his jealous countrymen, who refused to give him reinforcements in times of war. Despite this, Hannibal’s campaigns stand out for their unorthodox, nonetheless effective means of victory on the battlefield. Rome, the great empire of the ancient world, was threatened by one man’s visionary and utter hatred. Had Hannibal received proper support from Carthage, one may well argue that Rome’s fate could have been completely different. If it be true, as no one doubts, that the Roman people have surpassed all other nations in valour, it must be admitted that Hannibal excelled all other commanders in skill as much as the Roman people are superior to all nations in bravery. For as often as he engaged with that people in Italy, he invariably came off victor; and if his strength had not been impaired by the jealousy of his fellow-citizens at home, he would have been able, to all appearance, to conquer the Romans. 1 One needn’t look any further than the work of Polybius to observe the level of attention that Hannibal accredited. All Carthaginian Sources on Hannibal were destroyed, so our knowledge comes from an entirely Roman Perspective. Of course, validity of ancient sources is always questionable, particularly Roman, but together with the works of other ancient historians such as Livy and Appian, Hannibal is presented to us a fierce leader who exceeded his roman opponents on the battlefield. Hannibal came from Carthage, the dominant naval empire in the Mediterranean. While Carthage held vast areas of North Africa and Islands in the Mediterranean, Rome controlled nearly all of the Italian Peninsula and other parts of Europe. After the First Punic War (2414-BC), where the two sides fought over the island of Sicily, Carthage began to look to Spain to re-establish its empire following its bitter defeats. It was here in Spain that a young Hannibal swore an oath of hatred and vengeance against Rome, before his father, the noble Hamilcar Barca. When Hannibal took control of Iberian forces at the age of 21, he sought to honour that oath. After the First Punic War, Rome imposed the Ebro treaty on Carthage. This restricted Carthaginian expansion to the Ebro River in Spain. In 219BC, Hannibal moved against the city of Saguntum, winning it in an eight month siege. Although it lay below the borderline, it was in fact a Roman ally. When the Roman senate became aware of 1 From: Polybius, The Histories of Polybius, 2 Vols., trans. Evelyn S. Shuckburgh (London: Macmillan, 1889), I. 264-275. this, they demanded the handing over of Hannibal. Once Carthage refused, the Second Punic War began. As the great ancient Historian Polybius pointed out, it would be a mistake to look no further than the supposed breach of the Ebro Treaty to explain the war. Both sides were ready to fight: Carthage, to regain all that was lost in the First Punic War and since then; Rome, to put an end to the threat of Carthage once and for all. 2 Carthage now had a war on their hands. Hannibal made a bold decision to take the fight straight to Italy, rather than wait for the Romans to attack. By putting a direct threat to Rome, Hannibal hoped that he could win over many of Rome’s unwilling Italian allies, and weaken its power. So, with an army of 50,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry and 37 elephants, Hannibal set out from Spain, and marched through Southern Gaul, crossed the Pyrenees and the River Rhône, where he ferried his elephants across the water on large rafts. It is this story that remains Hannibal’s most noteworthy military feat, the crossing of the Alpines. Not only did his army face fierce resistance from the local tribes, but also the bitter cold of the Mountain climate. Although Hannibal lost a large number of his men and elephants, he reached the Po River Valley in Northern Italy, and won the support of its inhabitants, the Gauls. Gaius Flaminius, the Roman General, blocked the Apennine Passes, hoping to Prevent Hannibal from entering Etruria, where he could threaten Rome directly from the north. Hannibal took another nearly impossible route through the mountains, and broke through to Etruria in 217BC. As Flaminius and his army followed the Carthaginians, Hannibal set up an ambush on the shores of Lake Trasimene, where he crushed Flaminius and 25,000 of his men. Now that Rome was aware of this defeat, they decided that the only way to beat Hannibal was by sheer numbers in what they thought would be a final onslaught. In the following year, 80,000 Roman soldiers marched out to confront Hannibal at Cannae. Aware of the consistent Roman tactic of placing their main force of heavily armored legionaries in the centre of the battle line, Hannibal arranged his lightest armed troops (the Celts and Spaniards) in a convex line, in front of his main force of Carthaginian foot-soldiers. Both sides placed their cavalry on their flanks. As the Roman centre forced itself into the Carthaginian line, Hannibal’s cavalry won the fight on both flanks. This left them free to turn in and attack the rear of the Roman line, which now found itself surrounded. In a tight squeeze, where even their weapons could not be used, 45,500 Roman infantry and 2700 cavalry were slaughtered, as opposed to only 6/8000 Carthaginian Infantry. Livy tells us that after this battle, there were now over 170 new vacancies in the Roman Senate. The battle of Cannae today remains Hannibal’s greatest victory, and Rome’s single greatest defeat. 2 J.Lawless, K. Cameron, T. Catalanotto, D. Hennessy, G. Kenworthy, B. Leadbetter, A. Nobbs, K. Welch, Personalities from the Past, Nelson ITP, (1997) pg 191 It would be a long story to enumerate all his battles. Therefore it will suffice to add this one fact, to show how great a man he was: so long as he was in Italy, no one was a match for him in the field, and after the battle of Cannae no one encamped face to face with him on open ground.3 After Cannae, Sicily, Capua and many southern Italian localities defected to Hannibal. In the years that followed, Hannibal and his army continued to roam the countryside, as he held a comfortable presence in Northern Italy. In 211 Hannibal marched a force right up to the walls of Rome itself, however a siege did not take place, as the Roman reaction was not what he had hoped, and he was still short of reinforcements from Carthage. Polybius’ World History and Livy’s History of Rome from its Foundation, (the two most important sources on Hannibal) tell us that the Carthaginian Senate was jealous of Hannibal’s success and refused to provide him with the support necessary to sustain control in Italy. Hannibal’s end was unfortunate. While Publius Cornelius Scipio, the Roman consul, had already won a series of victories in Spain, Hannibal’s brother, Hasdrubal Barca, attempted to land reinforcements in Northern Italy. He was, by unfortunate circumstances, defeated and left Hannibal with no reinforcements for his army. Scipio had returned to Italy to gather an army to cross into Africa, for a full scale battle between the two sides. Carthaginian difficulties were such that Hannibal was eventually recalled from Italy, although peace negotiations were in order. The Battle of Zama (202BC) is Hannibal’s last great battle and first serious defeat. In this battle, Hannibal’s previous tactics could no longer outwit the Romans, who were determined to succeed under Scipio. He opened the battle charging his 80 war elephants into the Roman line. They responded with trumpet blasts, frightening the elephants back into Carthage’s line, while opening up their ranks and letting others run right through. Hannibal’s lack of numbers was the main factor in this defeat, as well as the defection of the Numidians (thanks to Scipio) whose strong cavalry contingent with the Romans routed Hannibal’s horsemen, already confused by the rioting elephants. As Hannibal’s army was in a state of chaos, the Romans were given some breathing time and were able to regather their army in stronger formations. Scipio’s heroic efforts saw Rome take Carthage once and for all, while Hannibal was forced into exile. Many years later, before the Romans could get to him, Hannibal finally died after drinking poison. So one may question whether Hannibal died a hero’s death or not. But what is clear, is that it took many years, hard fought battles and defeats for the Romans to finally beat Carthage. So long as Hannibal led on the battlefield, Rome was faced with a daunting obstacle, one that was not easily overcome. It is for this reason that we remember Hannibal, not for his defeat, but for his many victories, all of which were the result of superior battle tactics and resourcefulness. 3 Polybius, op cit No-one doubts the enormity and prestige of Hannibal’s campaigns throughout the Second Punic War. Although the accuracy of some of his victories does tend to come into question, it is generally accepted that he held the upper position during its course, and that when the war is mentioned, his is the first name to come to mind. All ancient sources point towards the notion that his leadership, visionary and war tactics were exceptional, and that history had never seen a leader so ruthless in battle. His destiny can be traced back to the oath that he swore at a young age, one that was so full of hatred that it could have brought Rome to pieces. For Rome, the war with Hannibal was an ugly one. They had lost thousands of troops, consuls and generals, and suffered many bitter defeats. One would gather that such a figure in Roman history would not merit recognition or respect, however this was not the case. Instead, the main sources from several Roman Historians paint Hannibal as a great leader among men, one whose perseverance and ingenuity won him battles, not merely numbers. For this very reason, the legend of Hannibal is ever present today, and for many historians, investigating his campaigns tends to evoke strong admiration and awe. Hannibal’s effect on Rome is not only evident in the words of their Historians, but also in the events of the War. One instance that demonstrates Rome’s desperation is the Battle of Cannae (218BC). By this stage, Hannibal had already won a string of victories, all of which were costly for the Romans. Their decision to send 80,00 troops in an attempt to finally suppress him and his army, demonstrates rash actions made during desperate times, a costly mistake that would be remembered in history for all the wrong reasons. By this battle, Hannibal proved that it would take more than brute force to defeat him, and that Rome would suffer many more defeats before they could overcome this. All military commanders who have been masters of strategy and great leaders of men have left their legends to inspire or to intimidate later generations, and something unforgettable about Hannibal could fire the imagination of the Romans whenever they thought of their historic past.4 When examining Livy and Polybius’ histories, one may conclude that careful precision and investigation was carried out during the time of writing. For example, Information on the crossing of the Alps comes from an eyewitness account, written by one of Hannibal's companions, Sosylus of Lacedaemon, who is known to have written a history of the Second Punic War in seven books. Polybius used the original text, while Livy knew it indirectly. Livy called upon another source who meticulously noted the information from the report in a precise chronology. Polybius also crossed the Alps to find out how Hannibal had invaded Italy and sailed along the coast of Western Africa. From this Information, we can feel confident that these histories of Hannibal in the Second Punic war are fairly accurate and cover the necessary details. 4 Titus Livius- The War with Hannibal: Books Xxi-xxx of The History of Rome from Its Foundation, Penguin Classics (1965) pgs 7-8 Perhaps some of Hannibal’s campaigns are exaggerated by ancient Roman Historians, to demonstrate the long fight that Rome eventually won. By painting the picture of a great opponent, Rome’s glory is magnified in its final victory at Zama, and it elevates the efforts of the great Scipio Africanus (who received his title from his victory at this battle). Modern Authors interpretations of Hannibal may tend to exaggerate his victories also, drawing from the work of ancient historians and adding to the spectacle of a great figure in History. From an objective view, we can conclude that Hannibal Barca was a great commander, one of the most talented history has seen, and that one man’s effect on Rome was enough to sustain a legend that has just as much significance today.