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15: Social Cognition Cognitive Neuroscience David Eagleman Jonathan Downar Chapter Outline Social Perception Social Thinking: Theory of Mind Social Feelings: Empathy and Its Many Components Social Emotions, Motivations, and Behavior Neurotransmitters and Social Behavior The Social Self 2 Social Perception What’s in a Face? Do I Look Like a Liar to You? Social Knowledge and the Temporal Pole Social Signals and the Superior Temporal Sulcus 3 What’s in a Face? 4 What’s in a Face? There is a significant amount of non-verbal information communicated by the face. The fusiform face area and the ventral visual stream are important for recognizing faces. The amygdala and insula are important for quickly recognizing social emotional cues on faces. 5 What’s in a Face? 6 Do I Look Like a Liar to You? We make judgements about other people based on seeing their face for only 100 msec. Faces can be classified by the factors of trustworthiness and dominance. Where a face falls on these scales can be manipulated by changing the features of the face. 7 Do I Look Like a Liar to You? 8 Social Knowledge and the Temporal Pole Social knowledge, such as recognizing celebrities, activates the anterior temporal pole. A part of the right superior anterior temporal lobe is active when considering qualities such as “polite” or “honorable”. The temporal pole is functionally connected to the basolateral amygdala. 9 Social Knowledge and the Temporal Pole 10 Social Signals and the Superior Temporal Sulcus Social intentions are communicated by gaze direction, posture, and vocalizations. The superior temporal sulcus (STS) is sensitive to gaze direction in others. STS is also active for other social cues, such as posture, facial movements, and contagious yawning. STS is active when recognizing a voice. 11 Social Signals and the Superior Temporal Sulcus 12 Social Signals and the Superior Temporal Sulcus 13 Social Thinking: Theory of Mind What Is Theory of Mind? Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind Disorders of Theory of Mind 14 What Is Theory of Mind? It is the ability to perceive and understand the mental states of others, and to recognize that they differ from our own. First order theory of mind is the ability to predict the thoughts of another person. Second order theory of mind is understanding what a third person would think about the second person’s thoughts. 15 What Is Theory of Mind? The Sally-Anne task is often used to study theory of mind. Sally places a ball in a basket. Anne moves the ball without telling Sally. Sally returns and looks for the ball. Where will Sally look for the ball? After about age 5, children demonstrate theory of mind by correctly predicting she will look in the basket. 16 What Is Theory of Mind? 17 What Is Theory of Mind? Other species show some components of theory of mind. Perceptual theory of mind is perceiving social cues that predict intentions. Motivational theory of mind is perceiving desires and intentions. No other species have informational theory of mind, which is what is tested in the Sally-Anne task. 18 Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind The network of brain areas important for theory of mind include Medial prefrontal cortex Precuneus Posterior cingulate cortex Temporoparietal junction Superior temporal sulcus 19 Neural Mechanisms of Theory of Mind 20 Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind Mirror neurons are active when performing a particular movement or when observing another perform the same action. These have been observed in area F5 in monkeys, which connects with the superior temporal sulcus. 21 Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind 22 Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind Mirror neurons fire when the action cannot be fully observed. They are also activated by the sound associated with an action. These neurons are most active for purposeful actions. In humans, the mirror neuron system is centered in the ventral premotor cortex. 23 Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind 24 Mirror Neurons and Theory of Mind Mirror neurons may provide an anatomical basis for representing theory of mind. There is an overlap between the theory of mind network and the location of mirror neurons. But there are also anatomical differences between the networks. Research has hinted that there may be additional networks of mirror neurons. 25 Disorders of Theory of Mind The theory of mind network is largely independent of general intelligence. Individuals with autism spectrum disorder have social and communication impairments and repetitive behaviors. 26 Disorders of Theory of Mind 27 Disorders of Theory of Mind In individuals with autism, there are abnormalities in brain regions associated with the theory of mind. Superior temporal sulcus has less gray matter and abnormal patterns of activation during social cognition tasks. There is weaker functional connectivity between the anterior cingulate and medial prefrontal cortex. 28 Disorders of Theory of Mind Disorders of theory of mind also are evident in schizophrenia. Individuals with schizophrenia have reduced gray matter. Medial prefrontal cortex Posterior cingulate gyrus Superior temporal lobes Insula Thalamus 29 Disorders of Theory of Mind 30 Social Feelings: Empathy and Its Many Components An Emotional Theory of Mind Empathy, Sympathy, and Compassion Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Mimicry and Contagion Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy Disorders of Empathy 31 An Emotional Theory of Mind This is the ability to infer the emotional state of another person. Empathy involves generating an appropriate response to the emotional state of another. Emotional contagion is the tendency of emotional states to evoke similar emotions in others. 32 An Emotional Theory of Mind 33 Empathy, Sympathy, and Compassion Empathy includes the emotional state of the other person as well as one’s own emotional state. Sympathy is consciously sharing the emotional state of someone else. 34 Empathy, Sympathy, and Compassion 35 Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Mimicry and Contagion Pupil size is effected by emotional states. The pupil size of an observer mimics the pupil size of the person they are observing. Small changes in pupil size are associated with changes in activity in the amygdala, superior temporal sulcus, insula, and anterior cingulate. Activity in limbic regions modulates the Edinger-Westphal nuclei. 36 Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Mimicry and Contagion 37 Neural Mechanisms of Emotional Mimicry and Contagion 38 Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy For women in romantic relationships Researchers applied painful stimulation to her hand. This activated primary and secondary somatosensory cortex and the anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex. When she observed the stimulation applied to her partner’s hand, this activated the anterior insula and anterior cingulate cortex. 39 Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy 40 Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy Subjects played an investment game with a stranger, who was either cooperative or uncooperative. Shocks were applied to the stranger. The anterior cingulate and insula were active when observing cooperative players. Much less active when observing uncooperative players. 41 Neural Mechanisms of Empathy, Sympathy, and Antipathy 42 Disorders of Empathy Emotional empathy is the ability to respond emotionally to other people. Cognitive empathy is the ability to understand the feelings of others. Damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex affects cognitive empathy. Damage to the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex affects emotional empathy. 43 Disorders of Empathy 44 Disorders of Empathy Individuals with autism spectrum disorder have difficulty with both emotional and cognitive empathy. 45 Disorders of Empathy 46 Disorders of Empathy Individuals who are psychopaths perform normally on tests of theory of mind and they recognize the emotions of others. They do not show emotional contagion or emotional empathy. Psychopaths have less gray matter in the ventromedial, orbitofrontal, and frontopolar cortex. 47 Disorders of Empathy 48 Social Emotions, Motivations, and Behavior Social Emotions from Theory of Mind Social Emotions from Social Values Social Reward and Social Aversion The Anatomy of a Lie 49 Social Emotions from Theory of Mind When an individual feels guilt or shame There is activity in the posterior and retrosplenial cingulate cortex. There is activity in the temporal pole, superior temporal sulcus, and anterior insula. There is also activity in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Activity in the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex is associated only with guilt. 50 Social Emotions from Theory of Mind 51 Social Emotions from Social Values People value concepts like kindness and honor. This social valuation is translated into emotional reactions. The anterior temporal lobe is active when people apply these concepts to evaluate their own actions or the actions of others. 52 Social Emotions from Social Values Evaluating one’s own actions activates ventromedial prefrontal cortex. Evaluating another’s actions activates lateral prefrontal cortex and insula. Positive emotions activate the ventral tegmental area, hypothalamus, septum. Negative emotions activate the insula and orbitofrontal cortex. 53 Social Emotions from Social Values 54 Social Reward and Social Aversion Social rewards tend to be very powerful. Striatal reward circuitry responds to social rewards as well as primary rewards, such as food or drink. Ostracism and criticism are common negative reinforcement in many societies. 55 Social Reward and Social Aversion 56 Social Reward and Social Aversion The medial prefrontal cortex and the dorsal striatum are active when subjects consider how others think of them. In social anxiety disorder, there is increased connectivity between the dorsomedial prefrontal cortex and the amygdala when the individual is criticized. 57 Social Reward and Social Aversion 58 The Anatomy of a Lie Dishonest subjects have longer reaction times when lying. Dishonest subjects activated additional brain regions, particularly the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, when lying. Stimulating the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex can influence deceptive behaviors. 59 The Anatomy of a Lie 60 Neurotransmitters and Social Behavior An Ancient and Fundamental System Oxytocin Vasopressin 61 An Ancient and Fundamental System Oxytocin and vasopressin are neuropeptides that influence social behaviors. Receptors are concentrated in the limbic system, including the hypothalamus, amygdala, septum, and hippocampus. The distribution of receptors varies between men and women. 62 An Ancient and Fundamental System 63 Oxytocin This peptide promotes affiliation, pair bonding, and parenting behaviors. In female prairie voles, monogamous behaiviors depend on oxytocin. Oxytocin has prosocial influences. It reduces activation in the amygdala while viewing fearful faces. 64 Oxytocin 65 Oxytocin 66 Vasopressin This neuropeptide promotes social dominance and aggression. It is important for partner bonding in males. Prairie voles are monogamous and have more vasopressin receptors in the ventral pallidum. In humans, vasopressin biases individuals towards perceiving social threats. 67 Vasopressin 68 Vasopressin 69 The Social Self The Wondrous Self-Awareness of the Human Brain Forms of Self-Awareness Why Bother with Self-Awareness? Neural Correlates of Self-Awareness Disorders of Self-Awareness Self-Awareness and Social Cognition 70 The Wondrous Self-Awareness of the Human Brain Self-awareness is mostly a human trait. Young children are not self-aware until a particular point in development. Some neurological conditions involve decreased self-awareness. 71 The Wondrous Self-Awareness of the Human Brain 72 Forms of Self-Awareness Self-awareness seems to be related to social cognition. Reflecting on one’s own thoughts, goals, or feelings is a form of self-awareness. The mirror test is a test for self-awareness in which you determine if an organism recognizes that its reflection is really itself. Humans and few other species pass. 73 Forms of Self-Awareness 74 Why Bother with SelfAwareness? Theory of mind may just be a consequence of self-awareness. There is a survival advantage to being able to predict or guess what others are thinking. An alternative theory suggests that selfawareness may be a consequence of theory of mind. 75 Neural Correlates of SelfAwareness Self-reflection activates the temporal poles, temporoparietal junction, precuneus, and medial prefrontal cortex. Cognitive self-reflection activates mostly medial frontopolar cortex. Emotional self-reflection activates medial prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, and ventrolateral prefrontal cortex. 76 Neural Correlates of SelfAwareness 77 Neural Correlates of SelfAwareness 78 Disorders of Self-Awareness Somatoparaphrenia and anosognosia are disorders of self-awareness. Patients do not recognize or acknowledge their own body parts. Both are caused by damage to the right temporoparietal junction and posterior insula. Somatoparaphrenia often involves damage to the right medial prefrontal cortex. 79 Disorders of Self-Awareness 80 Self-Awareness and Social Cognition There is a strong link between selfawareness and social cognition. The neural basis of self-awareness depends on what aspects of the self are being considered. Areas associated with self-awareness have other functions as well. 81