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How was Rome governed in the Late Republic? First off, we should note that the term ‘Late Republic’ usually refers to the period from 133-31 BCE. The basic government structure that existed at the dawn of the Late Republic was a hierarchical system of offices, like the following: Consul Praetor Aedile Tribune of the Plebs Quaestor The Senate and the Citizen Assemblies were what we would equate with the primary legislative bodies. This basic system remained throughout the Late Republic, with some alterations by Sulla and various other leaders. The Consuls (of which there were two) were the joint Roman heads of state, as well as commanders-in-chief of the army. The Praetors (six after 197 BCE but this number tended to vary) were in effect the chief law officer in Rome. He was in charge of the judiciary and acted as the chief judge unless either of the Consuls felt so inclined. The Aediles (of which there were 4) was basically the manager or supervisor of public works. They oversaw the organization of public festivals and games (sweet job) and also the construction of temples and administration of markets. The Tribune of the Plebs (of which there were 10) were originally meant to be the protectors of Plebeian interests, but later came to be representatives of the Populus Romanus as a whole. They could veto the action of any magistrate, propose laws to the Plebeian Assembly. The Quaestors (originally 4, later 10) were in charge of the military and civic treasury of Rome. Also were the primary record-keepers and acted as aides to the two consuls. This office was the lowest magistracy in Rome, often acted as the jumping-off point for aspiring public figures. Now for the Late Republic in particular... The Late Republic is widely considered to be the creation of Sulla and his reforms. The future leaders of Rome were hugely effected by Sulla’s career, as they would have grown up during his rule and been subject to reforms. As a result, those who would become Rome’s leading political figures reacted in one of two ways to Sulla’s program: it was either regarded as a paradigm to follow, or a path of corruption to be avoided at all costs. One of Sulla’s first moves following his ascent to power was to institute his proscriptions (published lists of individuals who were automatically condemned to death without trial) in 82 BCE. The sons and grandsons of any individuals cited on the proscription lists were barred from entering political life. Sulla’s proscription lists were extensive– an indicator of the number of opponents to his enforced rule– and thus deprived the state of the majority of political talent available in Rome. On the whole, this caused severe social and political disruptions which would set the tone for his later reforms and the government of the Late Republic. Sulla was determined to restore the state to the stable condition that existed before the Gracchi instigated a series of reform movements that would upset that balance. Following his proscriptions, the Senate ranks were severely depleted, but Sulla made up the difference and expanded the number of senators to 600, twice its original size. Sulla evidently felt that a strong and dominant Senate would provide the state with the stability he sought. He also revived many of the restrictions on office that had long been ignored by magistrates. These regulations restricted the praetorship to exquaestors and the consulship to ex-praetors. He also reinstated the age restrictions that had previously been in existence. These changes served to reinforce the hierarchical nature of the Roman government, forcing politicians to move slowly up the magisterial ladder. For Sulla, the tribunate represented one of the more dangerous and variable offices. In the past, much of the ‘revolutionary tendencies’ of the Roman populace had been instigated or fed by the Tribunes. To prevent a repetition of the Gracchi’s political agenda, Sulla curtailed the Tribunes’ powers to a great extent, and banned those who became Tribunes from holding any other offices within Roman government. Sulla also had a hate on for the equestrians, as many of them had stood in opposition to his rule and reforms. As a result, he targeted them throughout his career. They were already largely reduced in number as a result of the proscriptions, and Sulla placed many of those who remained in the Senate in an effort to blur their cultural identity. (The equestrians had traditionally been strong opponents of the Senate and its members) Many of Sulla’s reforms would eventually be reversed, the first failed attempt by Lepidus in 78 and then later successfully by Pompey and Crassus in 70. As consuls, Pompey and Crassus restored full powers to the tribunate and re-established equestrian identity by choosing two-thirds of the jurymen from among their ranks. The Late Republic is characterized by a series of vibrant and ambitious leaders, and marked by several dynamic power struggles between these personalities. The Roman governmental system was employed throughout the Late Republic as a means by which to gain popularity and authority. Instead of having as its focus the proper administration of the city and its inhabitants, the hierarchical system of magistracies was used time and time again as a pawn and an instrument by which to attack one’s personal opponents and secure the road to power.