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NATIONAL OVERVIEW ON VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE
CHANGE ON MARINE AND COASTAL BIODIVERSITY. SPAIN
By
Núria Marbà Bordalba
Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB)
Carrer Miquel Marquès 21
07190 Esporles (Spain)
November 2008
1
Contents
Executive summary
Introductory note
List of Acronyms
List of contents
1. Reference documents and information consulted
2. National activities concerning vulnerability and impacts of climate change on
biodiversity
3. Expert opinion on vulnerability and impacts of climate change of climate change
on biodiversity in national marine and coastal areas
4. Expert opinion on related priority national needs
5. Funding problems and opportunities
6. Conclusions and recommendations
List of References
2
Executive summary
-
Availability and problems of actual information and knowledge
Research on global change in Spain is rapidly growing during the current decade,
and most results obtained are published and disseminated. Most available
information and knowledge on global change impacts in Spain refer to climate
change and impacts on land biodiversity. The information about climate change
impacts on Spanish Mediterranean marine and coastal biodiversity is scarce,
although there is information available on responses of some key species (e.g.
gogonians, Posidonia oceanica) to Mediterranean warming, proliferation of exotic
and invasive species along Spanish Mediterranean coast, and the dependence of
some fish stocks (e.g. anchovy) to climate change.
There is a scarcity of long-term data series on marine coastal biodiversity preventing
to quantify and analyse the patterns of biodiversity responses to climate change. This
lack of information makes difficult to design and implement effective management
tools to conserve marine biodiversity.
-
Level and quality of national activities
Several activities, including legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes,
participation in national and international committees, research, monitoring and
training, addressing climate change and biodiversity are being conducted in Spain.
Few of these activities, however, directly address vulnerability and impacts of climate
change on marine and coastal biodiversity, but they are contributing to increase
knowledge on, and to improve, conservation of marine coastal biodiversity.
The fraction of coastal and marine area protected is insufficient to help marine
biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. Similarly, several
vulnerable marine species, ecosystems and habitats to climate (and global) change
are not yet taken into account in conservation plans.
-
List critical issues in national marine /coastal areas
The major threats to Spanish Mediterranean marine coastal areas and ecosystems
are direct human pressure, and impacts derived from climate change, as sea level
rise, and subsequent erosion, increase seawater temperature, frequency of extreme
climate events (heat waves, medicanes, drought/floods), seawater hypoxia, seawater
stratification and seawater acidification, as well as potential changes in marine
currents.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the Spanish
Mediterranean coastline are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of
some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and an
increase of exotic species arrivals. The projected climate change under IPCC
scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions, together with forecasted human population
growth along the Spanish Mediterranean during XXI century seriously threat the
future of Spanish coastal and marine biodiversity. Synergies between simultaneously
occurring global change impacts increase vulnerability of coastal and marine
biodiversity.
3
The most vulnerable Spanish coastal areas to climate change impacts identified are
low land areas, wetlands and beaches, mainly due sea level rise. Ecosystems
composed by long-living and slow-growing sessile organisms, as red coral,
gorgonians, sponges or Posidonia oceanica, are the most vulnerable ones to climate
and global change. Climate change may also impact fisheries and mariculture as
they are vulnerable to changes in ocean productivity, hypoxia and some species to
ocean acidification.
-
List priority needs
Conservation of coastal marine biodiversity requires to reduce and to mitigate direct
and diffusive anthropogenic impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity. Moreover,
efforts towards gaining information about the distribution and conservation status of
vulnerable key ecosystems and species is required in order to minimise climate and
global change impacts.
The number of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection
measures should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and
they should be designed and coordinated at basin scale. The design of the network
should consider the possible climate change effects to coastal waters, as well as
ecosystem and species distribution. Management of coastal ecosystems and marine
biodiversity should be adaptive.
Projected sea level rise and sea dynamics under scenarios of climate change for the
current century will impact Spanish Mediterranean coastal areas and thus their
inhabitants, users and ecosystems. A Planned Retreat from vulnerable coastal areas
as the only sustainable response to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise is needed.
It urges to initiate and maintain long term monitoring programmes to assess climate
impacts on coastal and marine biodiversity. Long-term monitoring should include
biogeographical borders for species distributions (e.g. Gata Cape region). In addition,
existing environmental and ecological monitoring networks should be improved and
consolidated. All monitoring data sets should become available.
The Spanish participation in international programmes should increase. Collaboration
and communication between Mediterranean countries (at research, policy and
training levels) should increase.
Research towards gaining knowledge on climate change impacts on oceanography
and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted. Spain has carried out a
comprehensive analysis of impacts of climate change in coastal areas, including
methodological development, which could be used for research of impacts on marine
biodiversity in coastal areas. This is being used to carry out a detailed analysis of
impacts and vulnerability of coastal stretches all along the coastline, including
impacts on protected areas, beaches, cliffs. Identification of tipping points and
conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by climate change should be emphasised.
Synergies between climate change and other global change impacts to marine and
coastal biodiversity should be considered.
4
-
Comment funding problems
European, national, and autonomic community governments, as well as private
foundations fund research programmes with climate change and biodiversity
priorities. However, the fraction of funding allocated to research on marine
biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research across EU and non-EU countries,
activities to promote collaborative research across north and southern Mediterranean
countries should increase. Current programmes fund research projects of a
maximum of 5 year duration, which is insufficient to support long-term monitoring
programmes.
-
Add key recommendations
The actions recommended are:
-
-
-
-
-
Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and
species.
Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data
from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species.
Increase the number of marine and coastal protected areas, particularly along
the peninsular Spanish Mediterranean territorial waters, and develop and
implement effective management plans for them.
Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate
dynamics, interactions between the climate system and oceanography and
marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change.
Increase dissemination of information and training actions on climate change
impacts and vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity. PNACC offers the
framework to conduct these activities.
Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive
impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems
Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan from vulnerable coastal
ecosystems
Promote adaptative management of coastal ecosystems and marine
biodiversity, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate
change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are
not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the
Mediterranean marine ecosystem.
Integrate Climate Change in GIZC.
These actions could be implemented by national or autonomic community
governments (depending on the competences of each institution), but they should be
coordinated at national, and when possible, Mediterranean scale.
5
Introduction note
The overview has been prepared as one of SAP BIO selected activities for the MAP
Biennium 2008-2009. It has been prepared by Mrs/Mr Núria Marbà Bordalba as
National consultant, guided by Mr Javier PANTOJA TRIGUEROS National SAP BIO
Correspondent, supervised by Dr José Luis HERRANZ SAEZ National Focal Point
for SPAs, and guided and assisted by Mr Jose Antonio García Charton, RAC/SPA
international consultant responsible for cluster B.
In addition the following national experts were informed/consulted, and their
comments have been included, on the present action:
Dr. Carlos M. Duarte; Institut Mediterrani d’Estudis Avançats (CSIC-UIB), Spain
Alfonso Gutierrez Teira, Ricardo Gomez Calmaestra, Jose Ramon Picatoste
Ruggeroni, Jorge Martinez Chamorro, Área de Estrategias de Adaptación, D.G.
Oficina Española de Cambio Climático, Ministerio de Medio Ambiente, Medio Rural y
Marino
6
List of Acronyms
CDB: Convention on Biological Diversity
CEICAG: Comité Español de Investigación en Cambio Global
CITES: Convención sobre el comercio internacional de especies amenazadas de
fauna y flora silvestres
CSIC: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas
EC or CE: European Commission
ESSP: Earth System Science Programme
FAO: Food Organisation
FP: Framework Programme
IGBP: International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
IHDP: International Programme on Human Dimension
IPCC: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
MAP: Mediterranean Action Plan
NoE: Network of Excellence
PNACC : Plan Nacional de Adaptación al cambio climático
OECC: Spanish Office of Climate Chage
RAC/SPA: Regional Activity Centre for Specialy Protected Areas
SAP-BIO: Strategic Action Plan for Biodiversity in the Mediterranean Region
SMOC: Sistema Mundial de Observación del Clima
UIB: Universitat de les Illes Balears
UNEP: United Nation Environmental Program
UNFCCC: United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
WFD: Water Framework Directive
WWF: World Wildlife Fund
7
1. REFERENCE DOCUMENT AND INFORMATION CONSULTED
1.1. Documents provided by RAC/SPA and its international consultants
-
Pérez T. 2008. Impact of climate change on biodiversity in the Mediterranean
Sea. UNEP-MAP-RAC/SPA, Tunis
The document describes temperature, sea level and precipitation changes
occurred in the Mediterranean sea for the last decades, and it reviews the
impacts of these climate changes on Mediterranean marine biodiversity.
-
IPCC Synthesis reports 2007. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/climatechanges-2007-ar4-sp.htm
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United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.
http://unfccc.int/2860.php
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The ninth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP 9).
http://www.cbd.int/cop9/
-
Integrating Biodiversity into Climate Change Adaptation Planning.
http://adaptation.cbd.int/
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CBD – Climate Change Adaptation Database.
http://adaptation.cbd.int/threats.shtml#sec1
-
Bern.
http://www.coe.int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Conventions/Bern/Seville_2008_en.as
p
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Bonn Convention. http://www.cms.int/
-
FAO & Climate Change. http://www.fao.org/clim/docs/CD-ROM/frameset.htm
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WWF : WWF Report on Climate change impacts in the Mediterranean
-
Laubier L., T. Perez, C. Lejeusne, J. Garrabou, P. Chevaldonné, J. Vacelet, N.
Boury-Esnault, JG Harmelin. 2003. La Méditerranée se réchauffe-t-elle? Mar.
Life 13: 71-81
This work reviews the footprint of seawater warming on the distribution,
abundance and mortality events of animal species growing in coastal deep
Western Mediterranean waters during the last 2-3 decades. The
temperature of deep Mediterranean water has increased 0.13 ºC during
the last 30 years. At l’Estartit, North East Spain, between 1973 and 2001
the mean annual water temperature has increased 0.7 ºC and 1.24 ºC at
80 m and 20 m depth. Mobile thermophile species of fish and echinoderms
are present, and in some cases abundant, in the North Western
Mediterranean waters since the decade of 1980 or that of 1990, depending
on the species, while prior to these years they were absent or rare.
Similarly, they report the absence of the fish Spheoroides cutaneus at
present in Algerian waters while previously it was abundant. Warming of
Mediterranean waters has also contributed to alien species spreading.
Sessile species are highly sensitive to increased seawater temperature.
Mass mortalities of about 20 different animal species (encompassing
sponges, cnidaria, briozoa, bivalves, polychetes) across the Northern
Western Mediterranean was recorded after the extremely calm summer in
8
1999, when seawater temperature below the thermocline reached 22-24
ºC. It reports mass mortalities up to 92 % of colonies of Paramuricea
clavata in the region. It also reports almost the extinction of the crustacean
Hemimysis speluncola in the caves of the region and the increase of
population size of H. margalefi, which have a lethal temperature for 50 %
mortality of individuals at 29.6 ºC and 32.6 ªC, respectively. The ecological
data available confirms the warming of coastal waters and that it impacts
marine biodiversity. The poor knowledge on temperature tolerance of
marine species makes difficult to predict mid- and long-term consequences
of this warming up.
-
UNEP/CBD/EMB D-CC. Report of the Roundtable on the interlinkages
between biodiversity and climate change. Convention on Biological Diversity.
Montreal. 19-20 March 2007
-
UNFCC. 2007. Report of the Conference of the Parties on its thirteenth
session, held in Bali, from 3 to 15 December 2007. Addendum. Part Two:
Action taken by the Conference of the Parties at its thirteenth session
1.2. National documents and publications identified and available
1.2.1. National documents and publications provided by RAC/SPA
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INFORME DE ESPAÑA: DEMOSTRACIÓN DE PROGRESO EN VIRTUD DEL
ARTÍCULO 3.2 DEL PROTOCOLO DE KIOTO
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CUARTA COMUNICACIÓN NACIONAL DE ESPAÑA: CONVENCIÓN MARCO
DE LAS NACIONES UNIDAS SOBRE EL CAMBIO CLIMÁTICO
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INFORME SOBRE OBSERVACIÓN SISTEMÁTICA DEL CLIMA PARA EL
SISTEMA MUNDIAL DE OBSERVACIÓN DEL CLIMA (SMOC)
This document provides information on the monitoring programmes of atmospheric,
meteorological and oceanographic parameters, stations monitored and length of the
time series available for Spain. It also provides information on the participation of the
different Spanish agencies in climate international programmes. The National
Meteorological Institute has a network of 65 stations monitoring the Spanish
atmospheric climate, 20 of them recording air temperature for more than 100 years.
The Agency of Spanish Harbours and the Spanish Oceanographic Institute monitor
oceanographic parameters. In the Mediterranean Sea the Agency of Spanish
Harbours has 6 deep (200 m -800 m depth) stations recording oceanographic and
meteorological parameters, 13 shallow stations recording wave activity, 5 stations
recording sea level, and 1 station (Gibraltar Straight) recording water currents, in
addition of 11 stations recording meteorological information. Similar oceanographic
parameters are monitored by the Spanish Oceanographic Institute. Oceanographic
data sets available range for recent to more than 100 years (e.g. sea level).
1.2.2. Other national documents found
-
Evaluación Preliminar de los impactos en España por Efecto del Cambio
Climático. Coordinador José Manuel Moreno Rodríguez. Varios autores.
9
2005. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente.
This book evaluates the impacts of climate change on Spanish
ecosystems and economic sectors. The information provided in this book
has been extremely useful to prepare the present document.
- Impactos en la costa española por efecto del Cambio Climático. Universidad de
Cantabria. 2004.
- Plan Nacional de Adaptación al Cambio Climático. From the reports mentinoed
above, it identifies the important actions to be considered within each Spanish
sector and system. It provided the nacional framework to conduct a coordinated
nacional evaluation in terms of impacts, vulnerability and adpatation, with the
particiation of relevant actors in Spain. It develops through working programmes,
the first of one, initiated in 2006, addresses the impact, vulnerability and
adaptation to Climate Change in coastal areas.
-
Cambio Global. Impacto de la actividad humana sobre el sistema tierra. 2006.
Coordinador Carlos M. Duarte. Colección Divulgación. Consejo Superior de
Investigaciones Científicas.
Book addressed to the general public that summarises the current
knowledge on impacts of Global Change on Earth System and
mechanisms to mitigate and adapt to Global Change. Extremely useful to
prepare the present document.
-
Convenio sobre Comercio Internacional de Especies Amenazadas de Fauna y
Flora Silvestres (CITES).
http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/biodiversidad/especies_amenazadas/con
venio_cites/es_cites/index.htm
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DIRECTRICES PARA EL TRATAMIENTO DEL BORDE COSTERO.
Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General para el territorio y la
biodiversidad. Dirección General de Costas.
-
DIRECTRICES SOBRE ACTUACIONES EN PLAYAS. Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente. Secretaría General para el territorio y la biodiversidad. Dirección
General de Costas.
-
Estrategia Española para la conservacion y el uso sostenible de la diversidad
biológica. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General de Medio
Ambiente. Dirección General de Conservación de la Naturaleza.
-
Catálogo Nacional de Especies Amenazadas. Listado de taxones por
categorías de amenaza. Ministerio de Medio Ambiente. Secretaría General
para el territorio y la biodiversidad.
-
Plan de Acción Estratégico para la Conservación de la Diversidad Biológica
en la Región Mediterránea. Informe Nacional Español. Ministerio de Medio
Ambiente.
1.3. Other documents identified, if any
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-
-
-
-
-
Benoit G, Comeau A. 2005. A sustainable future for the Mediterranean: The Blue
Plan’s Environment and Development Outlook. Earthscan, London.
Medina R, Losada IJ, Menéndez FJ, Olabarrieta M, Liste M, Menéndez M, Tomás
A, Abascal AJ, Agudelo P, Guanche R. 2004. Impactos en la costa española por
efecto del cambio climático. Fase III: Estratégias frente al cambio climático en la
costa. Ministerio Medio Ambiente.
The Europe Acacia Project
Linares C, Coma R, Diaz D, Zabala M, Hereu B, Dantart Ll. 2005. Immediate and
delayed effects of a mass mortality event on gorgonian population dynamics and
benthic community structure in the NW Mediterranean Sea. Marine Ecology
Progress Series, 305: 127-137
Linares C, Coma R, Zabala M. 2008. Efects of a mass mortality event on
gorgonian reproduction. Coral Reefs 27 : 27-34
Occhipinti-Ambrogi, D. Savini. 2003. Biological invasions as a component of
global change in stressed marine ecosystems. 46 : 542–551
Vaquer-Sunyer R, Duarte CM. 2008. Thresholds of hypoxia for marine
biodiversity. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA, 105: 15452–
15457.
Diaz-Almela E, N. Marbà, and C. M. Duarte. 2007. Fingerpints of Mediterranean
Sea warming in seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) flowering records. Global Change
Biology 13: 224–235
Marbà N and Duarte CM. 1997. Interannual changes in seagrass (Posidonia
oceanica) growth and environmental change in the Spanish Mediterranean littoral
zone. Limnology and Oceanography 42 : 800-810.
1.4. Quality and comprehensiveness of available information documents (a
short critical analysis to be provided, major gaps identified, the resulting
problems…)
The documents available provide an overview of (1) the current knowledge on
climate change and marine biodiversity, as well as on vulnerability of marine and
coastal biodiversity to climate change, and (2) actions undertaken towards climate
change mitigation and biodiversity conservation at global, Mediterranean and
Spanish scales.
Despite the evidence of climate change impacts on biodiversity, the magnitude of
Mediterranean marine biodiversity responses to climate change remain largely
unknown. This is partially due to the lack of long-term monitoring of Mediterranean
marine biota and ecosystem processes, and the scarce information available on
climate change impacts on marine organism physiology, population demography,
reproduction, species distribution and ecosystem function.
11
2. NATIONAL ACTIVITIES CONCERNING VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF
CLIMATE CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY
2.1. Activities identified
-
International, European and National Legal activities and Plans related with
vulnerability and impacts of climate change and Biodiversity in Spain.
The following table summarises the different legal activities and plans concerning
climate change and biodiversity in Spain.
Topic
Water
Level
Europe
National
Conservation
International
Europe
National
Environmental National
Quality
Climate
International
Change
Europe
National
Coasts
National
Biological
Diversity
Energy
International
Europe
Legal activity
- Water Framework Directive (200/60/CE)
- Hydrological National Plan (Law 11/2005) A.G.U.A
Programme (2004-2005)
- Water White Book (2000) – it aims at providing the
basis to, once described the present situation,
estimate future water use, regarding needs, priorities
and best practices, in Spain. It includes the need of
wetland and marsh conservation, water treatment,
desalination of marine waters.
- RAMSAR Convention: Wetlands of International
Importance
- CITES: The Convention on International Trade in
Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
- Bonn Convention: Convention on Migratory Species
- Bern Convention: Conservation of European Wildlife
and Natural Habitats
- EC Bird Directive (79/409/CEE)
- EC Habitat Directive (92/43/CEE)
-Spanish Strategy for Conservation and Sustainable
Use of Ecosystem Diversity
- Strategy for Endangered Species Conservation
-Strategic Plan for Wetland Conservation and Rational
Use
-Law 16/2002: to prevent and control pollution
- Kyoto Protocol
- UNFCCC and decisions within
Green Paper on adaptation to climate change
- National Plan of Assignation
- National Plan of Adaptation to Climate Change
- 1st Work Program by PNACC
- Coasts Law
- - Plan Director de costas (Estrategia de
sostenibilidad)
- Convention on Biological Diversity
-Directive 2001/77/CEE: to promote the use of energy
derived from renewable sources within energy market
12
National
Marine
Ecosystems
International
- Directive 2004/8/CE: to promote cogeneration
- EC Directive of Building Energy Efficiency
- ORDEN PRE/472/2004 to create the Inter-Ministerial
Commission to obtain biomass energy
- Renewable Energy Plan (2005-2010)
- Spanish Strategy for Energy Efficiency (2004-2012)
- Action Plan for Energy Saving and Efficiency (20052007)
- Barcelona Convention/Mediterranean Action Plan
- London Convention: for the prevention of marine
pollution
- Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC)
-White Book for Environmental Education
Europe
Environmental National
Education
General
Europe
- European Strategy for Sustainable Development
National
-Spanish Strategy for Sustainable Development
Waste
National
- National Plan for Waste (2000-2006)
(source: Table 9.2. Duarte 2006)
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International and National Research Programmes/Committees
Spain participates in the following international and national research
programmes and committees:
International Programme Geosphere - Biosphere (IGBP) –Spain. International
programme on research on climate change at global scale, aiming to provide
scientific knowledge on live sustainability on Earth. The programme studies the
interactions between biological, chemical and physical processes together with its
effects on human population. In addition it promotes dissemination of knowledge
needed to respond to global change. http://www.igbp-es.org/
International Programme Diversitas. Research on global biological diversity and
conservation. http://diversitas-international.org/
International programme on human dimension of global change (IHDP).
http://www.ucm.es/info/iuca/IHDP.htm
Consortium for Earth System Science. International consortium of scientists for
integration of research on Earth System. http://www.essp.org/
Spanish
Committee
of
Global
Change
Research
(CEICAG).
http://uc3m.es/ceicag/. It belongs to ESSP.
Internacional systems and netwoks for climate and global change monitoring:
GCOS (climate), GTOS (land), GOOS (ocean)
Global
Earth
Observation
System
of
Systems
(GEOSS).
http://www.epa.gov/geoss/
-
Research Plans/Programmes/Projects
Research plans, programmes and projects involving Mediterranean marine
research with Spanish participation are listed below.
Level
European
Programme
FP6 and FP7
Project title
- Thresholds of Environmental
13
Commission
National
Environmental research
(including Climate
change, pollution and
risks, Sustainable
Management of
Resources, Earth
observation and
assessment tools)Integrated Projects and
Networks of Excellence
FP6 Coordination
Actions: ERA-NETs
LIFE
INTERREG
Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation
(National Plan 20082011)
Spanish Ministry of
Science and Innovation
(2004-2007)
Spanish Ministry of the
Environment, and Rural
and Marine Affairs
Sustainability (FP6)
Southern European Seas:
Assessing and modelling
ecosystem changes (FP6)
- Hotspot ecosystem research on
the margins of European seas
(FP6)
- EURopean network of excellence
for OCean Ecosystems ANalysiS
(FP6, NoE)
- Implementation of high-throughput
genomic approaches to investigate
the functioning of marine
ecosystems and the biology of
marine organisms (FP6, NoE)
- Marine Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Functioning (FP6,
NoE)
- Models for Assessing and
Forecasting the Impact of
Environmental Key Pollutants on
Marine and Freshwater
Ecosystems and Biodiversity
(FP6)
- European COastal-shelf sea
OPerational observing and
forecasting system (FP6)
- European Seas Observatory
NETwork (FP6)
- Science and policy integration for
coastal System Assessment (FP6)
- Water bodies in Europe:
Integrative Systems to assess
Ecological status and Recovery
(FP7)
- Biodiversa Era-Net
- Marinera Era-Net
Multiple coastal and marine projects.
-
Thematic area: Climate and Climate
Change
Thematic area: Biodiversity
Thematic area: Marine Science and
Technology
Strategic Actions: Energy and Climate
Change
Thematic area: National Programme
of Biodiversity, Earth Science, and
Global Change
Marine biodiversity: Projects on
marine mamals, Lithophaga
lithophaga, invasive Caulerpa
14
(Biodiversity)
species, and sea turtles
Terrestrial biodiversity: Project on
“Climate change and biodiversity in
Spain: Impacts, vulnerability and
adaptation”
Autonomic
Government of Catalonia
Governments Government of the
Balearic Islands
Government of Valencia
Government of Murcia
Government of Andalucía
-
Research projects in National Parks,
Contamination prevention,
Management and Sustainable use of
natural resources
Several projects
Monitoring
The following table compiles the topic monitored, the agency responsible to
supervise the monitoring and the components or parameters monitored.
Topic
climate
Ecosystems
Agency
State Meteorological
Agency
Spanish Oceanographic
Institute
Ministry of the
Environment, and Rural
and Marine Affairs
(National Parks)
Spanish Harbours
Authority
European Organisation for
the Exploitation of
Meteorological Satellites
Government of Catalonia
Government of the
Balearic Islands
Government of Valencia
Government of Catalonia
Government of Catalonia
Government of Catalonia
Government of the
Balearic Islands
Components monitored
Atmospheric and meteorological
parameters
Oceanographic parameters
Monitoring network of global change in
National Parks (atmospheric and
marine parameters)
Oceanographic (and atmospheric)
parameters
Atmospheric, meteorological and
oceanographic parameters
Marine parameters (within the WFD and
others)
Marine parameters (within the WFD)
Marine parameters (within the WFD)
Posidonia oceanica monitoring network
Quality of coastal waters using
biological elements (P. oceanica,
phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga)
Invasive species
Posidonia oceanica monitoring network
Quality of coastal waters using
biological elements (P. oceanica,
15
Government of Valencia
Government of Murcia
Spanish Oceanographic
Institute
-
phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga)
Quality of coastal waters using
biological elements (P. oceanica,
phytoplankton, meiofauna, macroalga)
Posidonia oceanica monitoring network
Fisheries
Public awareness
Public awareness of climate and global change is increasing in Spanish society.
Proof of that is the rapid increase of news on this subject in the Spanish media,
including press, television and radio. For instance the number of news on climate
and global change published in 2007 in the major Spanish newspapers was more
than 24 fold that published in year 1995 (Fig. 1).
The Spanish Ministry of the Environment, and Rural and Marine Affairs has a
program to fund campaigns to disseminate information on climate change (OECCCENEAM,
http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/ayudas_subvenciones/ongs_ayudas/index.htm)
Figure 1. Number of news on climate and global change published in a sample of
the most read Spanish newspapers (i.e. El País, ABC, El Mundo, La Vanguardia).
(From Duarte 2006 updated).
16
2.2. Comments and critical analysis
Numerous activities addressing climate change and biodiversity are being
conducted in Spain, encompassing legislation, elaboration of plans and
programmes, participation in national and international committees, research and
monitoring. Most of these activities (except climatic monitoring) have been
initiated during the current decade.
Several legal activities are designed at European level and coordinated and
implemented in Spain by the Spanish and autonomic governments concerning
climate change and biodiversity. However, with the exception of the Water Frame
Directive, legal actions concerning vulnerability and impacts of climate change on
marine biodiversity are limited.
Spain participates in international research programmes/committees concerning
climate and global change and impacts on ecosystems. Research agencies at
European, Spanish and autonomic levels promote research on climate and global
change and their impacts on biodiversity through specific thematic areas. Spanish
researchers actively contribute to increase knowledge on these aspects by
participating in international and national research projects as well by publishing
the scientific results obtained. For instance, the number of scientific publications
on global change by Spanish institutions has grown from less than 50
publications in 1990 to about 400 in year 2005 (Duarte 2006). However, less than
5 % of global change publications in year 2005 with participation of Spanish
institutions concerned climate change impacts on marine biodiversity.
Atmospheric, meteorological and oceanographic parameters are being monitored
along the Spanish Mediterranean by different agencies, in most cases, for more
than 50 years. Most climatic time series are available and centralised by national
agencies. Conversely, few monitoring networks of Spanish Mediterranean marine
ecosystems are implemented so far. The Governments of three Spanish
autonomies coordinate the monitoring of Posidonia oceanica meadows and one
of them monitors invasive species along the Catalan coast. The few marine
ecosystem monitoring networks existing along the Spanish coast have been
initiated during the current decade. Fisheries and chlorophyll a are being
monitored by the Spanish Oceanographic Institute for several decades. Since the
implementation of the Water Frame Directive, Posidonia oceanica meadows,
phytoplankton, meiofauna and macroalga within coastal and transitional waters
are being monitored at different frequency, and for different time periods,
depending on the region. Because the WFD monitoring of biological elements
aims to assess the quality of the water masses instead of ecosystem
conservation status, these monitoring programs might not be fully useful to detect
ecosystem vulnerability and impacts of climate change.
Training activities concerning biodiversity and climate change mostly apply to
biodiversity on land and climate change.
Spanish society is aware of climate and global change and, to some extend,
vulnerability and impacts of climate and global change on marine biodiversity.
The amount of news on climate and global change and impacts on biodiversity in
Spanish media is rapidly growing. Indeed, the rate of growth of media news on
global change is much faster than that of scientific publications, reflecting, in part,
17
that dissemination of scientific knowledge to public is growing, and the greater
demand of society to be informed about it. As public awareness on climate and
global change impacts is rapidly growing, mass media should pay particular
attention to provide scientifically based information, otherwise society would be
misinformed.
18
3. EXPERT OPINION ON VULNERABILITY AND IMPACTS OF CLIMATE
CHANGE ON BIODIVERSITY IN NATIONAL MARINE AND COASTAL AREAS
3.1. Vulnerability and impacts of climate change relevant for national marine
and coastal areas
The Mediterranean Spanish coastline is about 2580 Km long, extending along
the Iberian Peninsula, from the Gibraltar Straight up to Creus Cape, and the
Balearic Archipelago (plus Ceuta, Melilla and other islands and smaller
archipelagos). The Mediterranean Spanish marine coastal areas are often
characterised by slope currents and strong stratification of seawater during
summer. The coastal areas located between the Gibraltar Straight and the
Gata Cape are strongly influenced by Atlantic marine waters. The border of
Atlantic and Mediterranean waters is located around Gata Cape, defining a
clear geographical limit for Atlantic and Mediterranean species distribution
ranges. The Atlantic and Mediterranean seawater exchange through the
Gibraltar straight, and its influence on marine hydrodynamics, are responsible
of up-welling processes along the southern Mediterranean coast of the Iberian
Peninsula.
Most rivers opening into the Spanish Mediterranean are
intermittent rivers, discharging water and materials to coastal waters during
intensive rainfall. Only few rivers with continuous flow have their mouths along
the Mediterranean Iberian Peninsula, being Ebro River the one with the
largest flow (c.a 300 m2 sec-1 at its mouth, Benoit and Comeau 2005).
The Spanish Mediterranean coast supports high human pressure. For
instance, about 55 % of the coastal Spanish fringe (between 0 km and 10 km
inland) surface was already occupied by coastal cities in year 1995 (Benoit
and Comeau 2005). Human pressure along the Spanish Mediterranean,
however, is far to have reached a ceiling, as cities are expected to occupy
73% of the coastal area by year 2025 (Benoit and Comeau 2005), and tourist
visits are forecasted to increase for year 2025. Heavy traffic roads border most
of the Mediterranean coastline of the Iberian Peninsula. Six trade harbours
with entries/exits ranging between 3500 and 11 000 thousand tones per port
and numerous marinas are located along the Mediterranean coastline of
Spanish mainland (Benoit and Comeau 2005). In the open ocean human
impacts are also evident. Fisheries production have been maintained around
100000 tones since 1950 (FishSTAT, http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/).
Benthic (coastal and deep-sea) ecosystems are being highly impacted by
trawiling fisheries. The opening of the Suez Canal, increased maritime traffic
and aquaculture activity during the last decades are enhancing the arrival of
exotic, often invasive, marine species in the Mediterranean sea, at the fastest
rates in Europe (one new exotic once every 4 weeks, Steftaris 2005), posing a
significant threat to the unique diversity and functioning of this sea. The high
anthropogenic pressure along the Spanish Mediterranean coast is causing a
widespread deterioration of marine ecosystems (Fig. 2), as reflected in,
amongst other negative symptoms, deterioration of seawater quality (e.g.
pollution, eutrophication), coastal erosion, biological invasions, fish stocks
overexploitation and habitat losses.
Marine and coastal areas along the Spanish Mediterranean are highly diverse,
19
and some of their ecosystems, such as seagrass meadows and macroalgal
dominated rocky shores, gorgonia’s forests, maërl beds, are considered
important reservoirs of marine biodiversity. The diversity of birds is also rich
along the coastal zone, and marine mammals and sea turtles are also
present. Despite the importance of marine biodiversity and their vulnerability
to growing human pressure, the number of marine protected areas along the
Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Currently, there are 14 marine reserves for
fisheries along the Spanish Mediterranean managed by state and/or
autonomic governments, involving protection of about 64 500 ha of the coastal
ocean. However, 75 % of Spanish Mediterranean marine reserve surface
concentrates along the Balearic Islands coast. WWF in 2007 estimated that
only 1% of marine surface area of the Spanish Mediterranean was protected.
Since implementation of Natura 2000 Network, the number of coastal areas
protected has rapidly increased. At present, the coastal Areas of EU Interest
defined along the Spanish Mediterranean comprise 440 000 ha of marine
surface, representing about 19 % of total protected area in the Mediterranean
Spanish regions. All marine protected areas are located in the coastal zone,
and none exists in the open ocean. Marine Protected Areas have not been
homogeneously designed across the Spanish Mediterranean, and they have
been created before reaching a consensus across the different autonomic
regions.
FF
Z F
Z F
FF
Z
Z
PP
FF
P= National Park
Z = High value protected areas
F = Worst areas
Acceptable conservation
areas
Highly degradated
areas
FF
Z
Z
PP
F
F
ZZ
PP
F
F
F Z
F Z
ZZ
Z
Z
Figure 2. Conservation status of Spanish coastline.
20
The increasing antropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases to the
atmosphere during the XX century are changing the Earth climate, reflected
by an increase of global atmospheric temperatures of 0.6 ºC (IPCC 2007).
The magnitude of atmospheric temperature rise in Spain during the XX
century has been larger than that recorded globally (de Castro et al. 2005).
For instance, since 1976 the atmospheric temperature in the Balearic Islands
has increased by 1.5 ºC (S. Alonso, personal communication), and the
maximum and minimum annual temperatures have tended to increase overall
Spain (de Castro et al. 2005). The increase in atmospheric temperature is also
warming the Mediterranean sea. Seawater temperature time series available
for the Spanish Mediterranean (e.g. Estartit) show a sustained increase of
mean annual surface waters of 0.06 ºC yr-1 (Díaz-Almela et al 2007) and a
warming rate of 0.025 ºC yr-1 of water at 80 m depth (Salat and Pascual
2002). Similarly, the number of years per decade when maximum seawater
temperature exceeded the average maximum annual temperature over the
last 40 years is increasing. Maximum annual seawater temperature at 5 m
depth in L’Estartit revealed positive anomalies for 3 years during the 70s, 6
years during the 80s, 9 years during the 90s, and 3 years between 2000 and
2004. Sea level along the Spanish Mediterranean is stable or rising at an
average rate of 2 ± 1 mm yr-1 during the last decades (Marbà and Duarte
1997), a trend similar to that reported for other North Mediterranean areas
(Perez 2008). Sea level rise is mostly attributable to thermal expansion but in
some areas also to local subsidence processes, as it occurs at the Ebro Delta
(Cendero et al 2005). Rainfall in some areas of the Spanish Mediterranean,
as the Balearic Islands, has tended to decrease by 16 % during the last 50
years (S. Alonso, personal communication). However, a no clear decreasing
pattern in rainfall overall the Spanish Mediterranean has been demonstrated
(de Castro et al. 2005).
Under the scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions A2 and B2 (CO2 global
concentrations in 2100 850 ppm and 760 ppm, 120 % and about 50 % larger
than that at present, respectively, IPCC 2007), global climate models forecast
a relative uniform increase of temperature in Spain of, on average, 0.4 ºC
decade-1 in winter and 0.7 ºC decade-1 in summer under the scenario A2, and
of 0.4 ºC decade-1 in winter and 0.6 ºC decade-1 under scenario B2 (de Castro
21
et al. 2005). Global greenhouse gas emissions and temperature, however, are
increasing faster than that forecasted by the most unfavourable scenario.
Since 1999, when future climate trends were projected, the observed global
temperature during 4 out of 5 years exceeded those modelled. Despite
discrepancies among the different global rainfall models available, all of them
forecast a decrease of total annual rainfall, slightly larger under scenario A2
than B2 for 2100 (de Castro et al. 2005). The decline in precipitation is
expected to be the largest during spring, and somewhat lower during summer.
The frequency of extreme climatic events (heat waves, medicanes,
drought/floods) during XXI century is projected to increase. Sea level along
the Spanish Mediterranean coast by the end of XXI century is expected to rise
about 50 cm above present one, although a rise of 1m is less probable but still
possible (Cendredo et al 2005).
Changes in freshwater availability in Spanish watersheds linked to climate
change also might have a significant impact to the coastal areas and
transitional waters. The impact of climate change to water resources is one of
the working themes of the 1st PNACC Working Programme.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the
Spanish Mediterranean are already evident, reflected by an increased
mortality of some species, changes in species reproductive biology during
warm years, and an increase of exotic species arrivals. Climate change,
therefore, compromises the biodiversity of Spanish marine and coastal areas,
which are already threatened by the direct impacts of human pressure in the
coastal and marine areas.
3.2. Critical impacts on marine and coastal biodiversity
Impacts on low land coastal areas
The critical impacts of climate change on low land areas are related with
increased frequency and/or intensity of storms, sea-level rise and, to some
extend, changes in river (sediment and water) flow.
Deltas rank amongst the most vulnerable coastal areas to sea level rise.
Under a scenario of 50 cm sea level rise and no increase in sedimentary river
transport, 50 % of the Ebro Delta and Llobregat Delta may disappear.
Similarly, other coastal low land areas along the Spanish Mediterranean might
be impacted: about 20 km along the Manga del Mar Menor, coastal lagoons 5
km long at Cabo de Gata (Cendredo et al 2005). Some of these vulnerable
low land areas are urbanised (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor, Llobregat Delta)
and thus may be lost, but others that support agriculture or belong to protected
areas may allow formation of new low land areas as sea front progressed
inland that might compensate for losses.
It must be mentioned that most of these coastal units are already deteriorated
as a consequence of urbanisation and pollution from agriculture (e.g. Albufera
de Valencia), industry or human population (e.g. Manga del Mar Menor,
Cendredo et al 2005). Similarly, during the last 50 years, river sedimentary
inputs to deltas (e.g. Ebro Delta) have largely decreased (by 90 %, Benoit and
22
Comeau 2005) due to dam construction, regulation and watershed
reforestation, enhancing the vulnerability of these coastal structures to climate
change.
Impacts on important beaches
Sea level rise is the major climate change threat for beaches. Sea level rise
would involve beach erosion, resulting into a decrease of beach surface or a
progressive inland movement of the beach (Fig. 3; Cendredo et al 2005). The
rate of beach retreat would depend on beach characteristics. Confined and
cemented beaches would be the most vulnerable ones to sea level rise
(Cendredo et al 2005). Beach surface loss would increase with decreasing
beach slope. Beach losses due to sea level rise would be smaller if
sedimentary inputs, from rivers and sand dune systems, to the beaches would
increase. However, very few Mediterranean Spanish beaches preserve the
associated dune systems intact, mostly because they have been destroyed
and urbanised. In some areas (Almería), the sand from dune systems has
been extracted. The loss of sand dunes, together with the construction of
harbours and marinas along the coast, are the main cause of present
instability, and erosion, of Mediterranean beaches, as the sedimentary dunebeach transport is broken or littoral drift modified (Cendredo 2005). An
acceleration of beach erosion due to human pressure is evident along the
entire Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula (Mazarrón,Murcia;
Carboneras, Almería; Puçol and Massalfasar, Castellón; Albufera de Valencia,
Valencia; Santa Pola, Alicante). The losses of Posidonia oceanica meadows
along the Spanish Mediterranean mostly occurred during the last 3 decades
as a consequence of antropogenic impacts, contributed to accelerate coastal
erosion. P. oceanica meadows act as marine forests, stabilising the
sediments where they grow and preventing erosion. Moreover, P. oceanica
meadows contribute to produce carbonate sand for adjacent beaches, since
the calcareous organisms living on leaves and rhizomes, together with
carbonate particles deposited on P. oceanica leaves, arrive to the beaches
together with P. oceanica litter after storms.
23
QuickTime™ and a
decompressor
are needed to see this picture.
Figure 3. Projected beach retreat (in m) for year 2050 along the Iberian
Peninsula and Spanish archipelagos. (Source: Medina et al 2004).
Impacts on ecosystems, habitats, populations/biota
The impacts of climate change on marine and coastal ecosystems will be
different for up-welling ecosystems or stratified areas, as well as coastal and
open ocean, and it will depend on the mobility of the species.
The ecophysiological (photosynthetic capacity, growth rate) response of
marine phytoplankton to increasing CO2 concentration and warming of
seawater is not yet fully known. The interactions between changes in the
marine environment derived from climate change and other factors, as nutrient
availability, may constrain the phytoplankton responses. The expected
increase of the stratification period, together with changes in macroscale
processes (upwelling, fronts, currents) might decrease marine productivity.
The increase in CO2 partial pressure could enhance productivity of benthic
vegetation (seagrasses and macroalgae), as CO2 limits productivity of these
populations (Anadón et al 2005). Changes in marine primary production would
change consumer production and then the rest of the marine food web.
Simultaneous impacts derived from climate change threat marine and coastal
species, populations and ecosystems. Coastal or shallow ecosystems are the
most vulnerable ones to impacts of climate change. Sea level rise threats
seagrass ecosystems, which are rooted into sediments between 0.5 m and 45
m depth, as it enhances submarine erosion and then habitat loss (Anadón et
al 2005). Similarly, wetlands are also highly vulnerable to increased coastal
24
erosion and flooding derived from sea level rise. However, if impacted coastal
ecosystems were able to colonise new habitat at similar rates as the sea
progressed into land, sea level rise would also provide new habitat for coastal
ecosystems to expand (Duarte 2002).
The increase of seawater temperature may compromise organism survival
and change species life cycle.
Mass mortality events of sessile (e.g.
gorgonians, scleractinians, sponges) and benthic mobile (e.g. crustaceans)
species have already been observed during anomalous warm and calm
periods (Pérez 2008). Similarly, the mortality rate of the seagrass Posidonia
oceanica along the Balearic Islands (Spain) significantly increased after
summers 2003 and 2006, the warmest summers during the period 2000 and
2007 (Marbà and Duarte unpublished). High summer temperatures also
enhance sexual reproduction of P. oceanica (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). A
massive, never before recorded, flowering event of P. oceanica meadows
across the entire Western Mediterranean Basin occurred in fall 2003 (DíazAlmela et al 2007), the time of the year when P. oceanica flowers. The large
production of sexual recruits by P. oceanica after summer 2003, however, did
not compensate for the plant losses due to plant mortality (Díaz Almela et al
submitted). The massive flowering of P. oceanica has been interpreted as a
plant response to thermal stress (Díaz-Almela et al 2007). There is also
evidence that marine diseases triggering host mortality increase during warm
events (Bally and Garrabou 2007, Perez 2008).
Many benthic and pelagic marine species are expected to modify their
geographic distribution as a consequence of sea thermohaline changes. The
increase in seawater temperature will result in displacements of biogeographic
borders of many species. The distribution of most groups of organisms will be
affected, expanding the distribution ranges of southern species and retreating
those of northern ones. Changes in distribution ranges of marine species in
the Northern Western Mediterranean are already being observed (Laubier et
al 2003). Moreover, interactions, not directly due to climate change, between
new and old species are expected. The rate of changes in distribution ranges
of marine populations driven by climate change may be faster or slower
depending on the effect of atmosphere on marine currents and stratification.
Increasing seawater temperature may favour the settlement and spread of
exotic and invasive species. The Mediterranean Sea is the European sea
hosting the largest number of exotic species (Gullasch 2005, Streftaris et al
2005), as a consequence of the opening of the Canal de Suez, aquaculture
activities and maritime traffic. Introductions encompass all groups of
organisms, and it has been estimated that a new exotic species is introduced
in the Mediterranean every 4 weeks (Streftaris et al 2005). Several exotic
species are present along the Spanish Mediterranean coastal marine
ecosystems. Some exotic species exhibit an invasive behabiour and
compromise the stability of native ecosystems. Changes in species
composition, derived from changes in biogeographical ranges and invasions,
together with new species interactions may alter ecosystem functioning.
Seawater warming also would enhance respiration of marine organisms and
ecosystems, increasing O2 consumption and CO2 production. The lower O2
solubility with increasing temperature would, in addition, decrease O2
25
availability in the water column. Hence, seawater warming increases the risk
of hypoxic events in coastal marine systems, particularly during calm periods.
The increase of CO2 partial pressure in seawater resulting from increased
atmospheric CO2 is acidifying seawater (Anadón et al 2005). The decrease in
pH of seawater might lower carbonate deposition in organisms with carbonate
structures such are, for instance, bivalves or corals. The forecasted CO 2
concentrations for the end of XXI century (IPCC 2001) might be able to
decrease enough seawater pH as to initiate carbonate dissolution in coastal
waters triggering ocean CO2 absorption (Anadón et al 2005).
The most vulnerable ecosystems, therefore, are those where all mentioned
impacts derived from climate (and global) change occur and those composed
with long-living and slow-growing organisms. Hence, wetlands and
ecosystems dominated by sessile organisms (e.g. red coral, gorgonians,
sponges, Posidonia oceanica) rank amongst the most vulnerable ones to
climate change impacts. In turn, the loss of marine and coastal vegetation may
contribute to accelerate global warming, since coastal vegetation is an
important ocean carbon sink (Duarte et al 2005).
Impacts on fisheries and mariculture
Climatic variability directly affects fish recruitment, a key process for fisheries.
Changes in marine currents, derived from atmospheric climatic variability, may
modify transport and survival of larvae and juveniles. If climate change
modifies primary and secondary production, food supply for fish larvae may be
limited, constraining fish recruitment and thus fish population size. Changes in
seawater temperature and salinity may also impact the physiology of
diadromous species. Changes in the distribution ranges due to climate
changes of diadromous species have been suggested. Fish migration routes
may change due to changes in prey abundance and distribution, which are
related with seawater temperature. Changes in seasonal isotherm distribution
might constrain fish migratory routes, and then fisheries. Marine circulation
shifts may change both pelagic and benthic populations even in deep water
(Anadón et al 2005).
The impacts of climate change on mariculture are not clear. Cultures that
require external food supply might not be much affected by a change in
productivity in the area. However, these cultures would be highly impacted by
climate change if ambient temperature exceeds, or pH or O 2 concentration are
below, the physiological limits for the species. In addition, climate change may
impact extensive mariculture activities, such are bivalve farms at the Ebro
Delta, relaying on local productivity. Mariculture may be particularly vulnerable
during extreme climatic events. The increase of seawater temperature could
also favour the arrival and spread of mariculture parasites (Anadón et al
2005).
4. EXPERT OPINION ON RELATED PRIORITY NATIONAL NEEDS
2-3 pages
4.1. Needs
26
Mitigation of climate change impacts Global Change, including Climate Change
and the rest of changes the Earth System experiences as a result of rapid human
population growth, threats the future of marine and coastal biodiversity. Reduction
and mitigation of direct and diffusive anthropogenic impacts are crucial for
conservation of marine and coastal biodiversity.
Conservation of marine biodiversity helps climate change mitigation. At present,
the low fraction of coastal and marine area and the few key and vulnerable
marine ecosystems to climate change impacts protected are insufficient to help
marine biodiversity conservation along the Spanish Mediterranean. The number
of marine protected areas and ecosystems should increase. Protection measures
should involve participation of all coastal and marine related actors, and they
should be designed and coordinated at basin scale. Adaptive management of
coastal ecosystems and marine biodiversity should be promoted, adjusting to
their responses to the evolving impacts of climate change, as opposed to static
regulation and management approaches that are not flexible enough to
accommodate the dynamic situation of the Mediterranean marine ecosystem.
Information about distribution and conservation status of vulnerable ecosystems,
habitats and species along the Spanish Mediterranean is scarce. Efforts to fill this
gap of knowledge are being conducted within the Natura 2000 Network. However,
Natura 2000 Network only involves some vulnerable marine habitats and species.
Information on the distribution and conservation status should be extended to all
vulnerable habitats and species.
Projected sea level rise, changes in wave energy and wave incident angle under
scenarios of climate change for the current century will impact Spanish
Mediterranean coastal areas and thus their inhabitants, users and ecosystems. A
Planned Retreat from vulnerable coastal areas as the only sustainable response
to mitigate the impacts of sea level rise is needed.
Long-term monitoring of vulnerable Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems and
habitats to climate change is mostly lacking. Long term monitoring to assess
climate impacts on biodiversity should be initiated and maintained. Recently a
Network across Spanish Natural Parks aiming to long-term monitor climatic,
oceanographic
and
ecosystem
changes
(http://reddeparquesnacionales.mma.es/parques/rcg/index.htm)
has
been
initiated and it will contribute to fill this gap of information. Long-term monitoring
programmes should be funded by other than standard research funding projects
(3-5 yr duration), and managed by national institutions or autonomic ones always
coordinated across the country. Long-term monitoring should include
biogeographical borders for species distributions (e.g. Gata Cape region). In
addition, existing environmental and ecological monitoring networks should be
improved and consolidated. All monitoring data sets should become public.
The Spanish participation in international programmes should increase.
Collaboration and communication between Mediterranean countries (at research,
policy and training levels) should increase.
Research towards gaining knowledge on climate change impacts on
oceanography and marine ecology and biodiversity should be promoted.
27
Identification of tipping points and conditions for ecosystem shifts driven by
climate change should be emphasised. Synergies between climate change and
other global change impacts to marine and coastal biodiversity should be
considered.
Dissemination and training activities on impacts of climate change to marine and
coastal biodiversity are very few, particularly when compared with those involving
terrestrial biodiversity.
4.2. Urgent actions proposed
-
-
Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and
species.
Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data
from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species.
Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the
peninsular Spanish Mediterranean.
Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate
dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and
marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change.
Increase dissemination and training actions on climate change impacts and
vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.
Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive
impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems
Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan and an Adaptation Plan from
vulnerable coastal ecosystems
28
5. FUNDING PROBLEMS AND OPPORTUNITIES
5.1. Regular national sources, potentially available
The regular national funding sources for research projects in Spain are:
-
-
-
Ministry of Science and Innovation. Since 1988, it lunches a National Plan for
Research of 4 years duration where priority research areas
(http://www.plannacionalidi.es/plan-idi-public/), strategies and types of calls
(fundamental research, applied research, transfer of knowledge to enterprises,
etc) are defined. Regular research projects usually extend for 3 years. It also
funds large projects (Consolider) of 5-6 years duration within the program
Ingenio 2010 (http://www.ingenio2010.es/). Calls are open annually. The
National Research, Development and Innovation Programme contains an
Strategic Action entitled “Energy and Climate Change”, with a subprogram
focussing on climate change mitigation – not energy-, climate observation and
adaptation to climate change, which objectives may include climate change
and marine biodiversity.
Ministry of Environment, Agriculture and Fisheries. It funds research projects
aiming at Contamination prevention, Management and Sustainable use of
natural
resources
and
National
Parks
research
(http://www.mma.es/portal/secciones/ayudas_subvenciones/idi/index.htm).
The duration of the projects is 3 years and calls are open annually.
Governments of Mediterranean Autonomies (Generalitat de Catalunya,
Govern de les Illes Balears, Generalitat Valenciana, Autonomic Community of
Murcia Region, Junta de Andalucía). All governments have research plans
funding research projects of duration ranging between 1 and 3 years. In
addition the Environment Department of these governments are responsible to
implement the European Water Frame directive and, thus, they fund surveys
to assess continental and marine water quality.
5.2. Other (private, public, partnership) sources, if any
-
Biodiversity Foundation (http://www.fundacion-biodiversidad.es). Since 2005.
Calls open annually.
AXA Foundation (http://researchfund.axa.com/en/). International projects.
5.3. International funds, projects, programmes (here, in 5.1 and 5.2 in
particular, potential national sources as co-financing for international projects
should be looked for. In addition, in 5.3, national eligibility for international
programmes / funds should be identified.
-
European Commission. It funds several programs (FP7 programme, LIFE,
INTERREG, INCO, ERA-net, COST) containing several calls to conduct
collaborative research between institutions of different EU (and non EU)
countries (http://cordis.europa.eu/). Funded projects extend for 3 to 4 years.
All listed institutions and foundations have research programmes funding
research on climate change and biodiversity. However, the fraction of funding
allocated to research on marine biodiversity is small. Despite EC funds research
across EU and non-EU countries, activities to promote collaborative research
29
across north and southern Mediterranean countries should increase. Current
programmes fund research projects of a maximum of 5 year duration, which is
insufficient to support long-term monitoring programmes.
30
6. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Several activities, including legislation, elaboration of plans and programmes,
participation in national and international committees, research, monitoring and
training, addressing climate change and biodiversity are being conducted in
Spain. Few of these activities, however, directly address vulnerability and impacts
of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity.
Fingerprints of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity along the
Spanish Mediterranean are already evident, reflected by an increased mortality of
some species, changes in species reproductive biology during warm years, and
an increase of exotic species arrivals. Climate change, therefore, compromises
the biodiversity of Spanish marine and coastal areas. In addition, Spanish
Mediterranean coastal and marine ecosystems exhibit a widespread deterioration
as a consequence of the high antropogenic pressure they support. The projected
temperature increase, sea level rise, increase of frequency of extreme events and
precipitation decrease under IPCC scenarios of greenhouse gas emissions,
together with forecasted human population growth along the Spanish
Mediterranean during XXI century seriously threat the future of Spanish coastal
and marine biodiversity. Synergies between simultaneously occurring global
change impacts increase vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.
The most vulnerable Spanish areas to climate change impacts identified are low
land areas, wetlands and beaches, mainly due sea level rise. Ecosystems
composed by long-living and slow-growing sessile organisms, as red coral,
gorgonians, sponges or Posidonia oceanica, are the most vulnerable ones to
climate and global change. Climate change may also impact fisheries and
mariculture as they are vulnerable to changes in ocean productivity, hypoxia and
some species to ocean acidification.
Impacts of climate change on marine and coastal biodiversity are difficult to be
detected and quantified with the absence of long-term records. Long-term
monitoring of vulnerable Spanish Mediterranean ecosystems and habitats to
climate change is mostly lacking.
Hence, the following actions towards decreasing impacts of climate and global
change to vulnerable Spanish marine and coastal biodiversity are recommended:
-
-
Initiation of long-term monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and
species.
Creation of a data centre that compiles, and makes available to public, data
from monitoring programmes of key ecosystems, habitats and species.
Increase the number of marine protected areas, particularly along the
peninsular Spanish Mediterranean.
Increase research activities addressed to understand and forecast climate
dynamics, interactions between atmospheric climate and oceanography and
marine biodiversity responses to climate (and global) change.
Increase dissemination and training actions on climate change impacts and
vulnerability of coastal and marine biodiversity.
Implement existing legislation to decrease and mitigate direct and diffusive
impacts of human population to coastal and marine ecosystems
31
-
Design and implementation of a Retreat Plan from vulnerable coastal
ecosystems
Promote adaptative management of coastal ecosystems and marine
biodiversity, adjusting to their responses to the evolving impacts of climate
change, as opposed to static regulation and management approaches that are
not flexible enough to accommodate the dynamic situation of the
Mediterranean marine ecosystem.
These actions could be implemented by national or autonomic community
governments, but they should be coordinated and homogenously designed at
national, and when possible, Mediterranean scale.
References
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