Download By Harsimranjit Singh Brar (L-2014-A-32-M)

PERCEPTION AND ADAPTATION STRATEGIES
OF PUNJAB PADDY GROWERS TOWARDS
CLIMATE CHANGE
Thesis
Submitted to the Punjab Agricultural University
in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of
MASTER OF SCIENCE
in
EXTENSION EDUCATION
(Minor Subject: Agronomy)
By
Harsimranjit Singh Brar
(L-2014-A-32-M)
Department of Extension Education
College of Agriculture
©PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
LUDHIANA – 141 004
2016
CERTIFICATE – I
This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Perception and adaptation strategies of
Punjab paddy growers towards climate change” submitted for the degree of Master of
Science in the subject of Extension Education (Minor subject: Agronomy) to the Punjab
Agricultural University, Ludhiana, is a bonafide research work carried out by Harsimranjit
Singh Brar (L-2014-A-32-M) under my supervision and that no part of this thesis has been
submitted for any other degree.
The assistance and help received during the course of investigation have been fully
acknowledged.
_____________________________
(Dr. Anil Kumar Sharma)
Major Advisor
Assistant Director TV & Radio,
Centre for Communication and
International linkages
Punjab Agricultural University
Ludhiana-141 004 (India)
CERTIFICATE – II
This is to certify that the thesis entitled, “Perception and adaptation strategies of
Punjab paddy growers towards climate change” submitted by Harsimranjit Singh Brar
(L-2014-A-32-M) to the Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree of M.Sc. in the subject of Extension Education (Minor
subject: Agronomy) has been approved by the Student’s Advisory Committee along with
External Examiner after an oral examination on the same.
___________________________
(Dr. Anil Kumar Sharma)
Major Advisor
___________________________
(Dr. Jaswinder Singh Bhalla)
Head of the Department
___________________________
(Dr. (Mrs.) Neelam Grewal)
Dean, Post-Graduate Studies
__________________________________
(Dr. Rakesh Nanda)
External Examiner
Professor & Head
Division of Agricultural Extension
Education, Sher-e-Kashmir University of
Agricultural Sciences and Technology,
Main Campus Chatha, Jammu-181001
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, I pay my obeisance to the Almighty God for having bestowed his
grace on me. The very idea of this work makes me amused in thanking to all those who helped
me in achieving this milestone of my academic pursuit. Although thanks convey modicum of
deep sense of gratitude from the core of heart yet there is no better way than to express it.
I would like to extend my profound regards and deep sense of gratitude to my Major
Advisor, Dr. Anil Kumar Sharma, Assistant Director TV & Radio, Centre for Communication
and International Linkages for his prudent guidance, encouragement and constructive
suggestions all through the investigation and preparation of this manuscript. His benign cooperation and perfection have not only left an indelible impression in my mind but also has
enlightened me spiritually. I am indebted to his timely advice, noble counseling and for
providing necessary facilities during my study. His every cordial behavior has imprinted
everlasting impression on my mind. It will not be an exaggeration to say that without his
sincere efforts, the culmination of present research work was beyond imagination.
With an overwhelming and genuine sense of obligations, I avail this opportunity to
express my deepest indebtedness to Dr. Vipan Kumar Rampal ,Deputy Director KVK
Fatehgarh Sahib, Dr. Jasdev Singh Deol Professor, Department of Agronomy, Dr. Gurbir
Singh Bhullar, Senior Scientist, Program Leader Research Institute of Organic Agriculture,
Frick Switzerland and Dr. (Mrs.) Rupinder Kaur Professor , Department Extension
Education (Dean PGS nominee) as my Advisory Committee who sustained his incessant and
exhilarating support , their affectionate behavior, sympathetic attitude, sagacious guidance
and help during the investigation. My vote of thanks would be incomplete without Dr. Ranjit
Singh, Assistant Floriculturist, Department of Floriculture and Satwinder Singh, Senior
Research investigator , Department of Economics as they motivated and helped me lot
throughout completion of this work.
I am highly indebted to my respected father S. Charanjit Singh and mother Smt.
Rajvinder Kaur, who persistently showered their silent blessing on me. I owe my affectionate
gratitude for the blessing of my bellowed parents who have also been main source of
inspiration and encouragement for dedicating my efforts at pace and without whose per
severance and affection, it would not have been possible for me to achieve this distant goal. I
wish to express my heartfelt thanks to my brother Simranjit Singh, whose love always inspired
me to get this endeavourer success. The support provided by my aunties Mrs. Kanwaljit Kaur
and Mrs. Varinderpal Kaur to motivate me throughout my degree was also praise worthy so I
am thankful to him. I convey my respect and gratitude to all my other near and dears who
could not be queued to find a mention here.
No formal words could suffice the tender care, deep affection, ever willing help and
moral support given by my dear friends Jagmit, Harman, Savtinder, Amanpreet, Amandeep,
Anupam, Faizal, Priyanka, Shachi, and Jashmeen also provided their valuable time and
companionship.
Thanks are also due to my special friends Dalbir, Taju, Davinder, Gurpreet, Ginny,
Shawinder, Jaideep, Navdeep, Parmveer and Ph.D. students for their unending help and cooperation.
I sincerely thank all the respondents of the study who spared their precious time and
provided the required information during data collection.
Date:
Place: Ludhiana
(Harsimranjit Singh Brar)
Title of the thesis
:
Perception and adaptation strategies of Punjab paddy
growers towards climate change
Name of the student and
admission no.
:
Harsimranjit Singh Brar
(L-2014-A-32-M)
Major Subject
:
Extension Education
Minor Subject
:
Agronomy
Name and Designation of
Major Advisor
:
Dr. Anil Kumar Sharma
Assistant Director TV & Radio
Centre for Communication and International Linkages
Degree to be Awarded
:
M.Sc.
Year of Award of Degree
:
2016
Total Pages in Thesis
:
59 + Appendix (xi) + VITA
Name of the University
:
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, 141 004,
Punjab, India
ABSTRACT
The present study was conducted to determine “Perception and adaptation strategies Punjab
paddy growers towards climate change”. The study was conducted in five agro climatic zones
of Punjab. On the basis of five agro-climatic zones, one district from each zone, three blocks
from each district and further one village from each block was selected randomly. From each
village, ten farmers having experience of minimum fifteen year of paddy cultivation were
selected randomly. Thus, a total of 150 farmers selected from the fifteen villages of the five
selected districts. Data was collected by using the interview schedule for the farmers. It was
observed that more than half of the respondents (54.66%) were from 30-46 years category of
age and were from joint family 54.00 per cent and 36.00 per cent having senior secondary
education level and 54.00 per cent have medium family size. All of the respondents were
married and 40.67 per cent had medium level of land holding and more than three fourth
(77.33%) had farming experience of 15-26 years. Most of the respondent agreed with the
statements i.e. Paddy production is affected, date of transplantation is affected, selection of
varieties to be sown, delayed crop maturity, number of irrigations, outbreak of insect- pest,
diseases, crop quality and net income from the crop. Majority of them i.e. 91.21 per cent had
adopted short duration crop varieties. The five statements i.e. use of resource conservation
technologies, organic farming, adopting soil moisture conservation methods, site specific
nutrient management, water management and conservation techniques were found to be non
significant with the strategies towards climate change whereas adoption of rain water
harvesting, short duration varieties, integrated farming system and changing the cropping
system of the paddy had significant relation with the adaptation strategies towards with
climate change. More than half i.e. 52.70 per cent of the respondent suggested resistance
varieties to insects-pest and diseases should be developed.
Keywords: Climate change, paddy grower, perception, adaptation strategies, suggestions
______________________
Signature of Major Advisor
_______________________
Signature of the Student
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CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE NO.
I
INTRODUCTION
1–5
II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
6 – 19
III
MATERIALS AND METHODS
20 – 26
IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
27 – 51
V
SUMMARY
52 – 54
REFERENCES
55 – 59
APPENDIX
VITA
i – xi
LIST OF TABLES
Table No.
Title
Page No.
4.1
Distribution of respondents according to socio personal
characteristics
29
4.2
Distribution of the respondents according to the cropping
pattern followed by them
32
4.3
Distribution of respondents according to their mass media
exposure
33
4.4
Distribution of respondents according to their extension
contacts
33
4.5
Distribution of respondents according to technologies adopted
by farmers
34
4.6
Distribution of respondent according to adoption of type of
farming
35
4.7
Distribution of respondent according to main source of
irrigation
35
4.8
Distribution of respondents according to mode of cultivation
35
4.9
Distribution of respondents according to decision taken for
farm operation
36
4.10
Distribution of respondents according to work done on farm
36
4.11
Distribution of respondents according to advice taken for
making a farming decision
37
4.12
Distribution of respondents according to practice followed are
compared to other farmers
37
4.13
Distribution of respondents according to commercial or
subsistence farming
38
4.14
Distribution of respondents according to labour hired for farm
operation
38
4.15
Distribution of respondents according to perceived land
holding
38
4.16
Distribution of respondents according to their awareness about
climate change
Distribution of respondents according to their source of
awareness about climate change
39
4.18
Distribution of respondents according to their perception about
climate change
40
4.19
Distribution of respondents according to their perceived cause,
effect and reasons for climate change
41
4.17
39
Table No.
Title
Page No.
4.20
Distribution of respondents according to perception regarding
the arrival of monsoon
42
4.21
Distribution of respondents according to perception regarding
the duration of rainy days in paddy season
43
4.22
Distribution of respondents according to perceived effect on
future generations
43
4.23
Distribution of respondents according to perceived mode of
tackling climate change
44
4.24
Degree of perception of farmers toward their effect on climate
change, monsoon, rainy days and future generation
44
4.25
Distribution of respondents according to perception towards
effect of climate change on paddy production
45
4.26
Degree of perception towards effect of climate change on
paddy production
47
4.27
Distribution of respondents according to adaptation strategies
adopted by farmers keeping in view the climate change
48
4.28
Degree of responses according to adaptation strategies adopted
by farmers keeping in view the climate change
50
4.29
Distribution of respondents according to suggestions to
mitigate the effect of climate change
51
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig. No.
Title
Page No.
3.1
Selected districts from five agro-climatic zones of Punjab
20
3.2
Number of farmers selected from five agro-climatic zones of
Punjab
21
4.1
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their age
28
4.2
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their family type
28
4.3
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their family size
30
4.4
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their educational
qualification
31
4.5
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their operational
land holding
31
4.6
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their farming
experience
32
4.7
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their mass media
exposure
33
4.8
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their Extension
contacts
34
4.9
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception
about happening of climate change
40
4.10
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception
regarding arrival of monsoon
42
4.11
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception
regarding duration of rainy days in paddy season
43
4.12
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception of
farmers towards effect of climate change on paddy production
46
CHAPTER-I
INTRODUCTION
Climate change is one of the greatest challenges being faced by global
community in 21st century. Air temperature near the earth surface rose by 0.74° C from
1906 to 2005 and it is estimated to increase as much as 6.4° C on average during the 21st
century (Anonymous 2007a). Climate change refers to any change in climate overtime,
either due to natural variability or as a result of human activity. The changes occur due to
variation in different climatic parameters such as cloud cover, precipitation, temperature
and increase in green house gases (GHG’s) emission through human activities. It is a
change in the mean and variability of its properties that persist for an extended period,
typically decades or longer (Anonymous 2007b).
The global climate change which has attracted attention of thinkers from almost
all fields is threatening to have significant and far reaching impacts on the human society.
Agriculture is the one of sensitive areas upon which society depends for the food, feed
and fiber that enables sustainable livelihoods. It is one of the sectors that are most
vulnerable to climate change. In agriculture, climate can reasonably be considered as a
resource and climate change can lead to changes in agricultural productivity of a region
(Darwin 2004). Climate change is expected to influence crop production, hydrological
balance, input supplies and other components of agricultural systems. However, the
nature of these bio-physical effects and human responses to them are complex and
uncertain. Climate change and agriculture are interrelated processes. Due to its sensitivity,
any change in the climate can have significant alterations in the crop yields (Rosezwerig
and Parry 2007).
Developing countries have been more vulnerable to climate change than
developed countries because of the predominance of agriculture in their economies and
scarcity of capital for adaptation measures (Fischer et al 2005). Similarly, FAO (2005)
has predicted that in developing countries, 11 per cent of arable land would be affected by
climate change, including a reduction of cereal production in up to 65 countries
constituting about 16 per cent of agricultural gross domestic product (GDP). The increase
in temperature has both negative and positive impacts on agriculture as Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC 2007) has projected that the potential food production to
increase with increase in local average temperature over a range of 1 to 3 o C, but above
this it is projected to decrease (Kumar 2014). Agriculture and food security are among the
major casualties of climate change in India. The pace and extent of warming across India
is wide spread and undisputed. Impact of climate change is serious such as erratic
monsoon, changes in agricultural zones, spread of tropical diseases, sea level rise, change
in availability of freshwater, floods, droughts, heat waves, storms, hurricanes, rainfall
intensity etc. India is likely to bear the highest agricultural productivity losses in the
world due to climate change pattern observed and scenarios projected. Climate change
projections made up to 2100 for India indicate an overall increase in temperature by 2-4o
C with no substantial change in precipitation quantity (Kumar 2010). Climatic patterns
change also causes spatial distribution of agro-ecological zones, habitats, distribution
patterns of plant diseases and pests which have significant impacts on agriculture and
food production (Easterling et al 2007).
Climate of Punjab is semi arid, hot and sub-tropical monsoon type with cold
winter and hot season from April to June. Monsoon season lasts from last week of June to
first week of September. The weather is relatively dry and uncomfortable weather tends
to be humid during July- September due to increase in moisture content in air
(Anonymous 2007a).
The early success of the green revolution in Punjab prompted the Government of
India to target the state as a source of rice (Oryza sativa L.) and wheat (Triticum
aestivum) for the national food procurement and distribution system at a guaranteed price.
The state of Punjab accounts for 12 per cent of the national food grains production and
nearly 40 and 60 per cent of the wheat and rice that buffer the nation’s central pool for
maintaining food stocks and operating public distribution system for the poor (Tiwana et
al 2007). So, rice-wheat became the major cropping system in Punjab. The state has about
2845 thousand hectares, under rice cultivation, which is almost exclusively irrigated area.
The state average productivity is about 3998 kg per hectares (Anonymous 2015). There
are many evidences of climate variability in Punjab. Relatively small climate changes can
cause large water resource problems in many areas, especially in the semi-arid regions
such as North West Punjab, India. If water availability decreases in this region it could
have significant implications for agriculture (Lal et al 1998).
Increasing temperatures and changes in rainfall pattern are also affecting the
agricultural sector. Although there are ongoing studies to understand the impacts, some
studies have shown certain trends. Researchers use several methods to assess the impact
of climatic variability ranging from the traditional approach of historical data analyses by
various statistical tools to controlled environment studies and crop growth simulation
2
models in order to understand the impact of temperature, rainfall and carbon dioxide on
crop growth and yield.
Rice has important implications for food security because it makes up
approximately one third of the caloric intake of third world population. In the northern
region of India, increase in carbon dioxide and a low increase in temperature is projected
to favour rice crop growth and ultimately rice yields whereas a high increase in
temperature and a low increase in carbon dioxide is likely to result in lower rice yield due
to adverse effects on crop growth (Ramirez 2010). An analysis of the historical trends in
yields of rice crop in the Indo-Gangetic plains using regional statistics, long term fertility
experiments, other conventional field experiments and the crop simulation models has
shown that rice yields during the last three decades are showing a declining trend and this
may be partly related to the gradual change in weather conditions in the last two decades
(Aggarwal 2008).
The recognition that climate change related threats to agriculture also represent
threats to quality of life on a global scale has led to an increasing amount of attention to
adaptation and mitigation strategies for agriculture by the farmers (Howden et al 2007).
Mendelsohn and Dinar (1999) reported that adaptation was estimated to reduce the
potential damages from climate change from 25 to 15-23 per cent in Indian agriculture.
The timely behavioural changes of the paddy farmers are essential for the successful
adaptation to the climate change in the paddy sector. It is essential to develop effective
mechanisms to share the research findings and resultant technologies on climate change
adaptation with the paddy farmers for their successful implementation. Paddy farmers
operating under rain fed conditions are worse off due to changing climate and hence their
knowledge, perceptions and attitudes are very important psychological factors influencing
the adaptation of climate-smart farming systems. Farmers are both among the most
vulnerable groups to climate change and on whom the task of adapting to climate change
and mitigating agriculture’s contribution to it largely falls. At the same time farmers’
willingness and capacity to respond to climate change is a social process based on the
social construction of the risks and vulnerabilities of increasingly variable climate
conditions (Berry et al 2006).
Adaptation and mitigation are two basic solutions to avoid the ill effects of
climate change, but with distinctly different responses. Farmer attitudes toward these two
general responses to climate change must be understood. Adaptation to climate change
involves changes in agricultural management practices in response to changes in climate
conditions. It often involves a combination of various individual responses at the farmlevel and assumes that farmers have access to alternative practices and technologies
3
available in the region. To adapt to the climate change, farmers are required first to notice
that climate has altered and then identify potential useful adaptation measures and
implement them. To enhance policy towards tackling the challenges that climate change
poses to farmers, it is important to have knowledge of farmers’ perception on climate
change, potential adaptation measures, and factors affecting adaptation to climate change
(Benedicta et al 2012). With unpredictable weather, the farmers keep changing crop
management practices by growing resistant varieties and are prepared for constant change
in the farming practices.
As agriculture and climate are mutually dependent, there is a need to understand
the effect of climate change on agricultural sector both at global as well as at regional
level especially to provide food to vulnerable sections of the population. Impacts of
climate change are diversified and need to be understood, so as to workout pragmatic
strategies to mitigate ill effects of climate change. The farmer is a critical decision maker,
if agricultural lands are to be effectively managed to adapt to changing climate
conditions. In Punjab, very few studies have been conducted on climate change. The
present study was designed to understand farmers’ perception about the changes in
climate and adaptation measures initiated due to climate change. Therefore the present
study entitled, “Perception and adaptation strategies of Punjab paddy growers
towards climate change” was undertaken, with following objectives:
1.1 Objectives of the study
1.1.1
To study the socio economic characteristics of the paddy growers.
1.1.2
To study the perception of the paddy growers regarding climate change.
1.1.3
To study the adaptation strategies being followed by the farmers in paddy
production.
1.2 Significance of the study
The findings of the study are likely help to determine the perception of the
farmers and the strategies adopted by farmer to mitigate the ill-effects of the climate
change. The study would help to modify the traditional system of farming according to
the climatic change. Thus, researcher would be able to identify the perception and
adaptation strategies of the farmers, which could help to develop the new technologies, so
as to attain a sustainable agriculture system.
1.3 Limitations of study
The study is based on the expressed opinion of the respondents. Therefore, the validity of
the findings is limited to the extent to which the respondents were objective in their
4
expression. The possibility of error involved in recall of information completely cannot be
ruled out.
1.3.1 The present study had also the other usual limitations of a single student research
project in terms of time, money and other resources.
1.3.2 The study is limited to only Hoshairpur, Saheed Bhagat Singh Nagar, Ludhiana,
Faridkot and Shri Muktsar Sahib districts of Punjab. So, the findings may not be
applicable to other districts of the state.
5
CHAPTER-II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Review of literature provides gainful information about what has already been done
and what is to be done on the selected research problem. It facilitates the development of
research instrument and interpretations of the result under study. It plays an important role in
the discussion of the results of the research problem under study. So, it is desirable to review
the relevant literature thoroughly while handling a research problem. Although, a large
number of research studies have been conducted on climate change, but the investigator has
come across a few studies on perception of paddy growers towards climate change and
adaptation strategies being followed in Punjab and number of indirectly related studies. The
review of literature has been presented on the following lines in accordance with the
objectives:
2.1 Studies on the socio-economic characteristics of the paddy growers.
2.2 Studies on the perception of the paddy growers regarding climate change.
2.3 Studies on the adaptation strategies being followed by the farmers in paddy production.
2.1
Studies on the socio-economic characteristics of the paddy growers
Kisauzi (2012) found in his study that the average age of the respondents was 52
years. Young generation was losing interest in agriculture in the face of uncertain and low
productivity from agriculture. From a total population of 11254 (total household size of
survey) 13 per cent of people (primarily of the age group of 15-35) have migrated outside.
This could be a result of the climate change induced vulnerability of people otherwise called
stress migration. They also examined that farmers were aware of change in climatic variables
in the soroti district, eastern Uganda; about 59 per cent of them were going for taking steps
to adjust their farming activities. The factors that have a major influence on their decision to
adapt were their income, access to irrigation, access to credit facility and landholding size.
Mustapha (2012) revealed that the age of respondents ranged from 20-40 years above
with most (31.1%) in the range of 31-35 years and the least for over 40 years (10.00%). This
was an indication of the fact that most of these farmers were in their active and productive
years who could easily perceive about climate change. Most of the respondents (45.1%) had
informal education 18.6% and 16.5% went to primary and secondary schools respectively
while only 20.00% of those studied had tertiary education. Also reported that climate
changes were greatly influenced by socio economic characteristics.
Tilahun et al (2014) reported that variables such as farmers’ level of education,
household nonfarm income, livestock ownership, extension on crop, livestock, household’s
credit availability, perception of increase in temperature and perception of decrease in
precipitation significantly affected the adaptation to climate change. Similarly, the farmers’
perception of climate change was affected significantly by information on climate, farmer to
farmer extension, local agro-ecology, number of relatives in development group and
perception of change in duration of season. Farmers’ access to crop and livestock extension
had positively and significantly affected adaptation to climate change. This showed that
farmers with best access to crop and livestock extension adapted the impact of climate
change more.
Thus it can be concluded from the above literature that lack of current knowledge and
information on climate, lack of finance, lack of education and poor extension services
significantly affected farmer’s perception on climate change.
2.2
Studies on the perception of the paddy growers regarding climate change.
Increasing the surface air temperature results in reducing the total duration of crop by
inducing early flowering and shortening the grain fill period as reported by Butterfield and
Moriso (1992).
Study conducted by Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) indicated the
possibility of loss of 4-5 million tons in wheat production in future with every rise of 1o C
temperature throughout the growing period. Rice production is stated to decrease by almost a
tonne/hectare if the temperature goes up by 20 C. In Rajasthan, 20 C rise in temperature was
estimated to reduce production of Pearl Millet by 10-15 per cent. If maximum and minimum
temperature rises by 30 C and 3.50 C respectively, then Soyabean yields in Madhya Pradesh
will decline by 5 per cent compared to 1998. Agriculture will be worst affected in the coastal
regions of Gujarat and Maharashtra, as fertile areas are vulnerable to inundation and
salinisation. (IPCC 1996).
The results of the study conducted on the perception of farmers in the Sekyedumase
district in Ghana on changes in temperature and rainfall showed that they are well aware of
climate change, as more than 80 per cent of farmers interviewed perceived an increasing
temperature and a decreasing precipitation trend. Although farmers appear to be well aware of
climate change, few seem to actively take steps toward adjusting their farming activities. Only
about 44 per cent of farmers have adjusted their farming practices to account for the impacts
of increasing temperature and 40 per cent made adjustments to counteract the decreasing
precipitation trend. (Lutz et al 1994, Shultz et al1997).
Lal et al (1998) revealed that the maximum yield for both rice and wheat were
obtained at surface temperatures 1° C below the present day climate at current CO2 levels.
The yields decline more sharply for a rise in temperature and 3° C rise in air temperature
7
almost cancels out the positive effect of elevated CO2 on wheat (rice) yields. The increase in
yields of wheat and rice (based on 30 year averages at four selected sites) simulated by the
CERES models for increases in CO2 concentration ranging from 150 ppmv to 1200 ppmv in
North West India when all other climate parameters are kept unchanged. While the increase
in yield is quite pronounced as CO2 concentration increases from 150 ppmv to about 350
ppmv, it is substantially lower for CO2 levels between 350 and 950 ppmv. No significant
increase in yield is obtained for CO2 levels beyond 950 ppmv. Beyond the CO2 concentrations
of 950 ppmv, the rate of CO2 fixation reduces as the export of end-product is insufficient and
the starch buffer in the chloroplasts is full thus leading to a negligible increase in yields.
Reilly and Schimmelpfenning (1999) described seasonal changes, sowing dates,
different varieties or species, water supply , irrigation system, other inputs (fertilizer, tillage
methods, grain drying, other field operations), new crop varieties, forest fire management,
promotion of agro-forestry, adaptive management with suitable species and silvicultural
practices as the adaptation strategies.
Berkes and Jolly (2001) analyzed the adaptive capacity of small community of
sachsharbour in Canada. These local communities changes their land based activities, cultural
and ecological life to cope up with climate change. The community was successful to adapt
themselves against climate change by utilizing their indigenous technological knowledge.
Zhu (2005) in his study found that climate change has both positive and negative
effects on farming, but there could be a more negative influence in the long run, which may
lead to food scarcity if there are no immediate efforts to confront these problems. Crop yields
are affected by many factors associated with climate change which includes: temperature,
rainfall, extreme weather events, climate variability and even carbon dioxide concentration in
the atmosphere which is predicted to cause global warming that will have a significant impact
on crop production (USDA 2007).
Kumar (2006) reported that temperature rise of 1.50 C and 20 C could result in decline
rice yields by 3.00 per cent to 15.00 per cent. Irrigation requirement in arid and semi-arid
regions is estimated to increase by 10.00 per cent by every 10 C rise in temperature.
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPPC 2007) reported in the 4th
Assessment Report that human actions are very likely the cause of global warming; meaning a
90.00 per cent or greater probability is attributable to human action. A comprehensive
assessment by the IPCC of the scientific evidence suggests that human activities are
contributing to climate change and that there has been a discernible human influence on
global climate. Climate changes caused by human activities, most importantly the burning of
8
fossil fuels (coal, oil and natural gas) and deforestation are superimposed on and to some
extent masked by natural climate fluctuations.
Wahid et al (2007) reported that constantly high temperatures cause an array of
morphological, anatomical, physiological and biochemical changes in plants, which affect
plant growth and development and may lead to a drastic reduction in economic yield.
The crop water regime may be affected by changes in seasonal precipitation, withinseason pattern of precipitation, and inter annual variation of precipitation. Too much
precipitation can cause disease infestation in crops, while too little can be detrimental to crop
yield leading to decline in agricultural productivity (IPCC 2007), especially if dry periods
occur during critical development stages. For example moisture stress during the flowering,
pollination, and grain-filling stages is very harmful to maize, soya bean, wheat and sorghum
even rice which feeds more than half of the world's population can also be jeopardized
(Lorraine 2007).
According to Chavez and Corpus (2008) global warming was the average increase of
the earth's surface temperature and oceans as compared to previous centuries. This was a
result of the continuous trapping of heat within the earth's atmosphere due to increased
quantity of greenhouse gases. Global warming is one of the key aspects of climate change.
Global warming can lead to the rise in the sea levels, oceans warm and glaciers melt thereby
threatening agricultural productivity and human settlements. Other impacts may include;
changes in rainfall patterns, increase in soil erosion, storms, floods and drought. The ultimate
result at the end would be a deepening food crisis, worsening weather, energy decrease and
general environmental breakdown throughout the world.
Geetalakhshami and Dibakaram (2008) reported similar trends of climate whereas of
rice yield data for 2 rice growing session viz. Kharif and Rabi from Regional Agricultural
Research Station, Pattambi change in climate is expected to create both positive as well as
negative of rice yield, declining trends in yield is observed during the year 2004-2008 during
Kharif and yield decline in Rabi session during the year 2003-2006. This could be due to the
delayed outset of south-west monsoon and more rain during the month of October-November
coincided with harvest of Kharif crop.
Ishaya and Abaje (2008) reported that 84.00 per cent of the respondents agreed that
climate change is a critical environmental issue that needs immediate attention. The results
further revealed that 85.5 per cent of the farmers affirmed that climate change had led to
various forms of drought, thereby reducing the quality and quantity of crops produced which
were very significant factors that increase cost of food crops. This implies that their perceived
strategies could be improved water management and irrigation system.
9
Majundar (2008) reported that the projected impacts are likely to further aggravate
yield fluctuations of many crop with impact on food security and prices. They are already
evidence of negative impact on yield of wheat and paddy in parts of India due to increased
temperature, increased water stress and reduction in number of rainy days.
Brett (2009) quoted that 75 to 250 million Africans are projected to be exposed to an
increase of water stress due to changes in rainfall pattern and the amount and availability of
water stored in the soil which is a crucial input to crop growth, which will be affected by
changes in both the precipitation and seasonal annual evapo-transpiration. Agricultural
production and access to food in many African countries is projected to be severely
compromised by climate variability and change in precipitation. The area suitable for
agriculture, the length of growing seasons and yield potential, particularly along the margins
of semi-arid and arid areas are expected to decrease. In some countries, yields from rain-fed
agriculture could be reduced by up to 50 per cent by 2020.In Nigeria, some areas like the
Niger Delta regions receive more than normal rainfall while some areas in the Northern
region receive almost no rainfall as a result, growing seasons are changing, ecological zones
are shifting, rainfall is becoming more unpredictable and unreliable both in its timing and its
volume.
Benedicta et al (2012) showed that 91.10 per cent of farmers interviewed perceived a
long-term change in temperature. Almost 88.00 per cent perceived an increase in temperature,
while only 3.30 per cent contradicted to this opinion. A total of 8.90 per cent gave other
responses. As to the causes of perceived rise in temperature, about 63.30 per cent of the
farmers attributed it to deforestation, 18.90 per cent to bush burning, 3.30 per cent to
increased population and 8.90 per cent to other factors. A 5.60 per cent respondent could not
give any reason for the perceived change in temperature. Deforestation was perceived as the
key cause of declining rainfall, in spite of the perceived increase in temperature.
Bose et al (2011) concluded that an increase in annual temperature of +0.76° C from
1971 to 2010 has been recorded in the semiarid zone of North-eastern Nigeria, whereas
annual rainfall has not exhibited any trend. Results showed that many farmers noticed longterm changes in temperature and precipitation, although farmers perception on temperature
change appeared to be higher than the one observed. In contrast to farmers perception,
observed annual rainfall showed insignificant trends.
Nyanga et al (2011) found that farmers perceived an increase in the duration of the
cold season were more than those who did not. Most farmers perceived no change in the
duration of the hot season but reduction in the rainy season duration. Positive effects of
climate change were listed by 28.80 per cent of respondents. The three most common positive
10
effects cited were increased gardening, increased access to adequate water and an
improvement in working. Negative effects of climate change were cited by 81.40 per cent of
respondents. The three most common negative effects were poor crop production (due to
flooding, prolonged dry spells and droughts), poor livestock production (due to increased
diseases) and increased food insecurity. Other negative effects included increased pests and
diseases, destruction of physical infrastructure, difficulty in planning because of increased
variability of the weather and reduced access to inputs due to low income from poor crop
production.
Rosell (2011) farmers interviewed in Wollo observed that around the year 2000 the
rains lasted longer than 3 months and with more precipitation at each rain event. Now the
rains last <1 week and provide less water. Meteorological data support this. Monthly total
rainfall declined by 3 to 15 per cent over the past 20 years in each of the belg months, except
for February when the coefficient of variation instead increased by 47.00 per cent.
There had a significant association between smallholder farmers’ perceptions of
extreme climatic events and adoption of conservation agriculture. Farmers often pointed out
that during seasons with less rain maize yields per hectare from conservation agriculture
fields were much higher than from conventional agriculture. Farmers attributed it to higher
water retention capacity in conservation agriculture than in conventional agriculture. Other
studies have shown higher infiltration rates and water holding capacity in conservation
agriculture plots than in conventional agriculture plots (Marongwe et al 2011).
Kisauzi (2012) majority of male and female farmers were aware of climate change
and their perceptions largely resonate with scientific meteorological data. Both male and
female farmers had observed the length of seasons had changed, temperatures had increased,
rainfall had decreased, floods, droughts and strong winds had become more frequent and
severe. There was no significant difference in perceptions regarding changes on all climate
parameters between men and women with the exception of perceived frequency and severity
of droughts. Women were more likely to perceive increased drought frequency compared to
men. Consequently, climate change response interventions need to engage both men and
women so as to get a holistic understanding of community perceptions. Further, female
headed Gender dimensions of farmers’ perceptions and knowledge on climate change 285
households were less knowledgeable about the cause of climate change. Sex was found to be
the sole determinant of climate change knowledge. Women had significantly less education
and access to sources of information, namely, radio, extension and groups undermining their
capacity for climate change adaptation.
11
Mustapha et al (2012) showed that most of the respondents (36.30%) strongly agreed
that climate change led to crop/livestock infestation and diseases while 26.30 per cent
strongly disagreed with the assertion. This implies that their perception on adaptation
strategies could be based on strategies that address crop/livestock infestation and diseases.
The result also shows that most of the farmers 33.80 per cent reported that climate changes
were responsible for the increased food costs while only 18.80 per cent strongly disagreed.
The implication could be that their perceived strategies could be directed towards improved
productivity of food in the study area. According to 61.30 per cent of the respondents,
climate change was perceived to be the cause of draught while 21.30 per cent of the
respondents disagreed with his assertion.
Wiles (2012) reported that farmers’ understand that turbulent weather is attributed to
a climate shift, culminating in extreme weather events, heat-waves and drought.
Kumar (2014) found that majority of farmers opined to a great extent over changes in
cropping pattern, additional stress on fragile systems in agriculture and effect on crop
physiology as a result of climate change. Majority of farmers opined to a great extent about
the items such as increased incidence of pest and disease in crops, increase in incentive
negative effect of cold wave on fruit and vegetable crops, reduction in vegetative cover and
increased pest and disease incidence on crops as a result of climate change.
Rakib et al (2014) revealed that the majority of the farmer’s perceived that mean
temperature of the study area were increased. Similarly, owner, owner-cum-tenant and tenant
farmers reported that annual rainfall was decreased due to long lasting highest temperature. At
the same time, long term temperature instability may cause rigorous environmental, human
health hazards and also initiate drought issues. Most of the farmers reported that a few crops
like as wheat, pulse and vegetables production rate had been decreased due to lack of rainfall
and heat wave. These types of crops unable to uptake water from inner portion of the soil
profile and heat tolerance power is very low.
Dhanya and Ramachandran (2015) reported that all the farmers’ perceived that there
was significant increase in temperature. Farmers also informed that the heat had became
unbearable even in the September and October months (rainy season), which was pleasant
months before. Analysis of cloud cover also showed a decreasing trend though statistically
was not very significant with a negative direction of slope. Majority of the farmers (85.00%)
reported that there were changes in the onset, intensity and duration of rainfall. The rainfall
data analysis also showed the variability in the annual rainfall, and declining trend of southwestern rainfall during 1970–2002. Farmers reported that there was a shift in the onset dates
of rains in some years with high amount of unpredictability. Though their perceptions not
12
match with the rainfall statistics, this may because the farmers were more worried about the
rainfall availability during the main crop growing season and they do not had an account on
the total rainfall received in their area annually. The respondents also pointed out that the
delay in the onset and the intermittent dry spells were harmful for the growth and maturing of
paddy crops. The farmers perceived the effects of climate change on various agriculture
related aspects; the major response focused was on the reduction in the area under cultivation,
the necessity of using more fertilizers, pesticides and insecticides due to increasing pests and
insect attack.
Thus it can be concluded from the above literature that majority of the famers perceived that
there were some changes in the climate because of various reasons. The reasons for these
changes were perceived differently by farmers of different regions of the world.
2.3 Studies on the adaptation strategies being followed by the farmers in paddy
production
The main adaptation strategies of farmers identified include change in crop types,
planting short season varieties, changing planting dates and crop diversification. The results
of determinants of adaptation strategies suggest that land tenure, soil fertility, access to
extension service and credit are the most significant factors affecting the adaptation capacity
of farmers. Land tenure is vital to adaptation as landowners tend to adopt new technologies
quickly than tenants, an argument that has justified numerous efforts to reduce tenure
insecurity (Lutz et al 1994, Shultz et al 1997).
Adaptation to climate change is a response to perceived vulnerability with intent to
reduce risks to the farm operation. Globally averaged annual mean warming rate of 0.23° C
decade has been projected for the next century in recent climate modeling experiments which
consider the effects of both greenhouse gas and sulphate aerosol forcing (IPCC1996).
Recent studies confirm that the impact of global warming beyond a certain limit may
be serious for agricultural productivity particularly in add and semi-arid regions (IPCC 1996).
Smithers and Smith (1997), Roncoli et al (2002) had studied that response to long
term perceived changes, farm households in the study sites had undertaken a number of
adaptation measures, including changing crop varieties, adoption of soil and water
conservation measures, water harvesting, tree planting and harvesting periods. These
adaptation measures were mainly yield related and account for more than 95.00 per cent of
the measures. The remaining adaptation measures (amounting to less than 5.00 per cent) were
non-yield related include migration and a shift in farming practices from crop production to
livestock herding or other sectors. About 58.00 per cent did not undertake adaptation
measures in response to long-term shifts in temperature and 42.00 per cent did not undertake
13
adaptation measures in response to long-term shifts in precipitation. More than 90.00 per cent
of the respondents who took no adaptation measures indicated lack of information, shortages
of labour, land and money as major reasons for not doing so. In fact, lack of information has
cited as the pre dominant reason by 40.00 to 50.00 per cent of the households.
Kumar and Parikh (1998) reported that adaptation by the farmers of their cropping
pattern and inputs in response to climate change, the losses would remain significant. The loss
at the farm level and net revenue was estimated to range between 9.00 per cent and 25.00 per
cent for a temperature rise of 20 C-3.50 C.
William (1999) suggested that the adaptation measures made by the farmers includes
the translocation of crops across natural climate gradient, the rapid introduction of new crops
such as soybean in the USA and Canola in Canada and resource substitutions promoted by the
changes in prices of production inputs. A wide selection of modeling studies reviewed
suggested several agronomic and economic adaptation strategies that are available to
agriculture. Agronomic strategies include changes in crop varieties and species, timing of
operations and land management including irrigation. Economic strategies include investment
in new technologies, infrastructure and labour. Such agronomic strategies were found to be
offset either partially or completely the loss of productivity caused by climate change.
Economic adaptations were found to render lowering the agricultural costs of climate change.
Dobermann et al (2002) reported that integrated nutrient management and sitespecific nutrient management (SSNM) is another technology with potential to mitigate affect
of climate change and benefits of these technologies with; increased rice yields and thereby
increased CO2 net assimilation and 30-40 per cent increase in nitrogen use efficiency.
Adaptation to the adverse effects of climate change is a key issue for all countries,
especially developing countries, which are often the most vulnerable and at least equipped to
adapt. Adaptation is widely recognized as a vital component of any policy response to climate
change because it helps farmers achieve their food, income and livelihood security objectives
in the face of changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions, including climate variability,
extreme weather conditions such as droughts and floods, and volatile short-term changes in
local and large-scale markets. (Kandlinkar and Risbey 2000)
Bandiera and Rasul (2002) reported that despite their potentially strong impact on
poverty, agricultural innovations are often adapted slowly. Using a unique house hold dataset
on adaptation of new techniques by sunflower farmers in Mozambique, they analyzed weather
and how individual adaptation decision depends on the choice of others in the same social
networks. In line with information sharing, the network effect is stronger for farmer’s who
report discussing agriculture with others. Holloway et al (2002) reported the most advanced
14
attempt to get to grips with the adaptation of discrete technologies in the presence of spatial
auto correlation, using the adaptation of High Yielding Varieties (HYV) rice in Bangladesh as
an example. Once more it was suggested that the location and scale of neighborhood effects
can helps in planning ways to provide extension advice. They also noted that the size of
information externality for coping was paramount importance. When spatial effects were
accounted for it was discovered that neighborhood effects are the only significant variables in
the model including such effects make other variables insignificant.
Shugart et al (2003) reported that adaptation strategies to control insect damage can
include prescribed burning for reduced forest vulnerability to increased insect outbreaks, nonchemical insect control (e.g. Bacuoviruses) and adjusting harvesting schedules, so that stands
most vulnerable to insect defoliation would be harvested preferentially. Under moderate
climate change, these [pro active measures may potentially reduce the negative economic
consequences of climate change. Bradshaw et al (2004) reported that important adaptation
options in the agricultural practices include crop diversification, mixed crop, livestock
farming systems, using different crop varieties, changing planting and harvesting dates and
mixing less productive, draught-resistant varieties and high-yield water sensitive crops.
Rautela (2005) discovered the various disaster management practices by the people of
Himalayan region. He observed that during the course of their habitation the indigenous
people through experience, experimentation and accumulated knowledge devised way of
reducing their vulnerability to natural hazards. Further studies showed that their
understanding was fairly evolved in the area of earthquake, landslide and drought
management and had devised way of mitigating the effect of natural climate changes. Climate
change and African agricultural review report 2006 reported that changes in temperature and
precipitation cause changes in crop selection change in the use of shades and sheltering and
changes in soil conservation. In addition, changes in precipitation were also offset by changes
in planting dates, a shorter growing season and increased use of water conservation
techniques.
Orindi and Eriksen (2005) reported that agricultural adaptation involves two types of
modifications in production systems. The first is increased diversification that involves
engaging in production activities that are draught tolerant and resistant to temperature stresses
as well as activities that make efficient use and take full advantage of the prevailing water and
temperature conditions. Among other factors, crop diversification can serve as insurance
against rainfall variability as different crops are affected differently by climate events. The
second, strategy focuses on crop management practices geared toward insuring that critical
crop growth stages do not coincide with other harsh climate conditions such as mid-season
15
droughts. Use of irrigation has the potential to improve agricultural productivity through
supplementing rainwater during dry spells and lengthening the growing season.
Jawahar and Msangi (2006) reported the adaptation measures can be supply-side
measures (such as providing more water), demand site measures (such as reuse of water) and
combination of both (such as changing crop varieties). While some measures may be taken at
the individual or at farm level, the other required technology collective action (rainwater
harvesting) or investments at the agency or government level (for example building dams,
releasing new cultivars that are more water efficient). Nhemachena and Hassan (2007)
conducted a study on various adaptation strategies used by farmers in response to changing
climatic condition in South Africa and the results indicated that less than 40.00 per cent of the
respondent did not adapt any adaptation strategies. The result has showed that mixed crop and
livestock farmers were associated with positive significance adaptation to changes in climatic
conditions and female headed household were more likely to take up adaptation options. It
was found that household with access to electricity, tractors, heavy machines and animal
power has better chance of taking up the adaptation options. Nyong et al (2007) reported that
local population in the African Sahel region has developed and implemented extensive
mitigation and adaptation strategies through their indigenous knowledge systems that have
enabled them to reduce their vulnerability against climate change.
Kurukulasuriya and Rosenthal (2003) explored the importance of water availability
in the Ricardian model by estimating the role of irrigation as an adaptation measure against
unfavorable climate conditions.
Nhemachena and Hassan (2007) indicated that common adaptation methods in
agriculture include use of new crop varieties and livestock species that are better suited to
drier conditions, irrigation, crop diversification, adaptation of mixed crop and livestock
farming systems and changing planting dates, using different crop varieties, changing planting
and harvesting dates increases use of water and soil conservation techniques and diversifying
from farm to non-farm activities to cope up with climate change. Shiraz (2008) reported that
in the eastern Uttar Pradesh regions farmers undertake many adaptive measures against
climate change, some of them were crop intensification, diversification, value addition, crop
cycle management i.e. pre-flood cultivation, coping with floods and post-flood cultivation.
Gahendar and Dinanath (2008) examined that the farmers of the Chitwan district of
central Nepal had taken up number of adaptations against climate change, they constructed
check dams and other infrastructure, some of them replaced rice by maize, the streambeds has
16
tries because of deposition of debris, making water inaccessible for irrigation during stress
period.
Ronak and Niranjan (2008) reported that in Dhala region of Rajasthan, the farmers
had been blending traditional and improved farming practices to adapt to changes in climate
they are experiencing. By including practices like mulching, new seeds or vermi-composting,
crop diversification, green manuring in their agriculture system. Sheth (2008) mentioned two
approaches to reduce the impact of climate change on agriculture, one is mitigation and the
second is adaptation to climate change. Mitigation efforts attempt to prevent hazards from
developing into disasters altogether or to reduce the effects of disasters when they occur. Olef
et al (2008) reported that in irrigated areas, zero tillage in particular had effectively reduced
the demand for water in rice wheat system in Indo-Gangetic plains and now considered as a
viable option to combat climate change.
Mertz et al (2009) asserts that change in land use and livelihood strategies is driven
by a range of factors of which climate change appears not to be the most important. This
partly explains smallholder farmers’ low perception of conservation agriculture as an
adaptation strategy. In line with climate change adaptation theory, smallholder farmers are
faced with multiple constraints that are contributing to low adaptive capacity
Benedicta et al (2012) found in his study 44.4 per cent indicated the adoption of some
adaptation measures. Crop diversification and changing crop planting dates were identified as
the major adaptation strategies to a warmer climate. Similarly, about 41.00 per cent of farmers
appeared to have changed their management in response to declining precipitation, with crop
diversification and shifting the planting date being the most important adaptation measure.
Land tenure, soil fertility level, access to extension services, access to credit and community
lived by farmers are the significant determinants to adaption to climate change.
Bose et al (2011) found that in order to cushion the effects of climatic variability
farmers have adopted a variety of adaptation strategies including soil conservation, change in
planting date, agro forestry product, improve crop seedlings and irrigation.
Farmers also argued that early land preparation and planting associated with
conservation agriculture increased chances of survival of the maize crop from floods. This is
because the crop would most likely grow early enough before floods and quite strong enough
not to be damaged severely at the time of flooding. A few farmers also gave a counter view
that if floods came early in the rainy season, early planted maize was most likely going to be
destroyed or have poor harvest and those with conservation basins would be faced with
increased labour to backfill the basins with soil to minimize water logging. Nevertheless, the
17
perceptions of conservation agriculture as an adaptation strategy were very low despite more
than half of the respondents having adopted it (Marongwe et al 2011).
Nyanga et al (2011) observed that although conservation agriculture was being
practiced by 65.00 per cent of farmers, only 7.9 per cent of farmers cited it as a climate
change adaptation strategy. Of those who listed adaptation strategies, 85.9 per cent did not
cite conservation agriculture. Among those who did not list any adaptation strategy, 57.6 per
cent were practicing conservation agriculture. These results showed that there were other
more important reasons for practicing conservation agriculture than adaptation to climate
change from the farmers’ opinions.
Arbuckle et al (2013) found that many Iowa farmers believed that climate change was
occurring and believed that steps leading to adaptation should be pursued. At the same time
the most of the farmers didn’t agree that mitigation at through by government action is an
avenue that should be followed. Thus, findings suggested that farmers would be more
responsive to outreach focused on adaptation strategies rather than mitigation actions. On the
other hand, it is important to recognize that the substantial minority of Iowa farmers who do
believe that climate change is happening and due at least in part to human activity appear to
be more open to mitigation action.
Sahu and Mishra (2013) found in their study in Odisha that although farmers are
aware of change in climatic variables in the studied region, about 59.00 per cent of them are
going for taking steps to adjust their farming activities. It is found from the survey that people
who have better access to irrigation facility they are adapting maximum of the possible
adaptation options. People who do not adopt any of the techniques are those who do not have
access to irrigation facility and have a very low level of income. Therefore, steps should be
taken to encourage and facilitate their adaptation behaviour to climate change which can go a
long way reducing their vulnerability.
Kumar (2014) found that majority of farmers opined to a great extent over changes in
cropping pattern, additional stress on fragile systems in agriculture and effect on crop
physiology as a result of climate change. Majority of farmers opined to a great extent about
the items such as increased incidence of pest and disease in crops, increase in incentive
negative effect of cold wave on fruit and vegetable crops, reduction in vegetative cover and
increased pest and disease incidence on crops as a result of climate change.
From the above literature it can be concluded that changes in cropping pattern,
conservation agriculture, change in land use and several other strategies were being adapted
by the farmers for paddy production while some latest strategies can be adapted in future for
better production.
18
Lack of current knowledge and information on climate, lack of credit facilities and
poor extension services on climate change adaptation were identified to be the major
constraints of adaptation to climate change in the study area.
19
CHAPTER-III
MATERIAL AND METHODS
The material and methods of any research are largely dependent upon the procedures
followed in conducting the investigation. Keeping this in view, a thorough study of the available
relevant literature was made in order to develop the research methodology to be followed for
conducting the present study. The methodology adopted in conducting this study has been given
under the following heads.
3.1
Locale of the study
3.2
Selection of the respondents
3.3
Selection of the variables
3.4
Operational definitions
3.5
Construction of research instrument for data collection
3.6
Pre-testing of research instrument
3.7
Collection of data
3.8
Analysis of data
3.1 Locale of study
The Study was conducted in five Agro-climatic zones of Punjab.
3.2 Selection of the respondents
On the basis of five agro-climatic zones, one district from each zone, three blocks from
each district and further one village from each block was selected randomly. From each village,
ten farmers having experience of fifteen year in paddy cultivation were selected randomly. Thus,
a total of 150 farmers were selected for the present study.
Hoshiar
pur
SBS Nagar
Ludhiana
Faridkot
Shri
Muktsar
Sahib
Fig. 3.1: Selected districts from five agro-climatic zones of Punjab
Fig. 3.2: Number of farmers selected from five agro-climatic zones of Punjab
21
3.3
Selection of the variables
The variables for the present study were selected after reviewing the related research
studies and through discussion with the members of advisory committee. The following variables
for the farmers were selected.
3.3.1 Independent variables
3.3.2
3.3.1.1
Age
3.3.1.2
Family type
3.3.1.3
Educational qualification
3.3.1.4
Family size
3.3.1.5
Marital status
3.3.1.6
Operational land holding
3.3.1.7
Farming experience
3.3.1.8
Cropping pattern
3.3.1.9
Mass media exposure
3.3.1.10
Extension contacts
3.3.1.11
Decision making
3.3.1.12
Climate change
Dependent variables
3.3.2.1
Perception
3.3.2.2
Adaptation
3.4
Operational definitions
3.4.1
Age
It referred to chronological age of the respondents in terms of completed years of life at
the time of data collection. Based on these criteria, the respondents were categorized into
following three categories by using range method viz., 30-46 years, 47-63 years and 64-80 years.
3.4.2
Family type
It referred to the composition of a family i.e. nuclear and joint family. A family was
considered as nuclear where only husband, wife and their children lived together, whereas joint
family consisted of mother, father, brother, cousin and other relatives living with the respondents.
3.4.3
Educational qualification
It referred to the level of formal school education of the respondents. One score was given
to each year of school/college one attended successfully. Education was categorized as follows:
Illiterate
Primary school
Middle
22
Matriculation
Senior secondary
Graduation
Post graduation
3.4.4
Family size
It referred to the number of members in the family of the respondents. The size of the
family was classified into the following categories:
3.4.5
Small
≤4
Medium
5-8
Large
>8
Marital status
Marital status of the respondents was operationalised in terms of married and unmarried.
3.4.6
Operational land holding
It referred to the area cultivated by the farmers in acres. It was calculated as follows:
Operational land holding (acres) = Land owned + Land leased in – Land leased out.
The respondents were classified into following five categories on the basis of criteria given in
statistical abstract of Punjab (2015).
Category
3.4.7
Operational Land Holding
Marginal
< 2.5
Small
2.5-5 acres
Semi-medium
5-10 acres
Medium
10-25 acres
Large
> 25 acres
Farming experience
Familiarity with farming skills or field of knowledge acquired over months or years of
actual practice. The farming experience of the farmers was classified into three categories viz., 1526 years, 27-38 years and 39-50 years by using range method.
3.4.8
Cropping pattern
It is the pattern of crops for a given piece of land or the proportion of area under various
crops at a point of time in a unit area or the yearly sequence and spatial arrangements of crops
and follows in an area.
3.4.9
Mass media exposure
It referred to the frequency of using different media viz., Radio, Television, Farm
Literature, Newspaper and Information Communication Technology (ICT) by the respondent to
gain or improve knowledge. Mass media used by the respondents was measured on the three point
23
continuum such as Always, Sometimes and Never and score 3, 2 and 1 was assigned respectively.
The respondents were classified on the basis of score obtained by the respondent. It was
categorized by using range method.
Category
Score
Low
14-19
Medium
20-25
High
26-32
3.4.10 Extension contacts
It referred to the frequency of contacts made by the respondents with different extension
agencies for seeking information related to agriculture. It was measured on the three point
continuum such as Always, Sometimes and Never and score 3, 2 and 1 was assigned respectively.
The respondents were classified into three categories by using range method on the basis of scores
obtained by the respondents.
Category
Score
Low
9-12
Medium
13-16
High
17-20
3.4.11 Climate change
Climate change refers to any change in climate over time, whether due to natural
variability or as a result of human activity. It was studied by preparing statements with the help of
experts from Department of Agronomy and School of Climate Change and Agricultural
Meteorology related to effect of climate change on paddy production.
3.4.12 Perception
It referred to the effects of climate change on paddy production as perceived by the
farmers. It measured on scale viz. Agree, Neutral and Disagree. The score of 3, 2, and 1 were
assigned accordingly.
3.4.13 Adaptation
It refers to the adjustment in natural or human system in response to actual or expected
climate stimuli or their effects. The response of the respondents recorded in yes/no form with a
score of 1 and 0 respectively.
3.5 Data collection tools
Data were collected by using the interview schedule for the farmers.
3.5.1 Construction of research instrument
An interview schedule was designed and finalized in consultation with the members of
the advisory committee and by consulting relevant literature. It was consisted of following three
parts.
24
Part I: This part consisted of the items regarding the socio economic characteristics of the
farmers such as age, family type, educational qualification, family size, operational land holding
etc.
Part II: This part included statements related to effect of climate changes as perceived by
farmers.
Part III: This part was comprised of the statements regarding different strategies being adopted
by the farmers to cope up with the climate change.
3.6 Pre-testing of research instrument
The interview schedule was pretested on 20 non sampled farmers. The possible
ambiguities in the interview schedule have been located, eliminated and modified as suggested by
advisory committee. Farmers were contacted for the purpose of pre-testing was not included in
final sample.
3.7 Collection of data
Data were collected personally by the researcher by visiting the study area and
interviewing the farmers. For receiving the response of respondents, the investigator contacted
them personally in their villages. Proper precautions were taken to ensure unbiased response of
the respondents by providing them necessary instructions after explaining the objectives of study.
3.8 Analysis of the data
After the data collection, the data were tabulated on master sheet for further processing.
The Tables were prepared according to the objectives of the study. The data were analyzed with
the help of Range, frequency, percentage, Mean, Standard deviation and Z-score.
3.8.1 Percentage
A percentage is a way of expressing a number as a fraction of 100 (per cent meaning “per
hundred”).
Percentage =
3.8.2
Frequency
Total number of respondents
× 100
Range method
Range method was employed to classify the respondents into different categories. The
formulae used as follows:
Range =
Maximum limit – Minimum limit
Number of categories to be made
25
3.8.3
Mean Score
Mean is the average of the numbers: a calculated central value of the set of numbers: The
mean score was calculated by the following formula:
𝑋=
ΣXi
N
Where,
Xi = Observation Score
N = Total number of observations
X = Mean Score
3.8.4
Standard deviation
This was employed to classify the paddy farmers into different groups and spread of data
on different variables. It was obtained by the square root of the average of the square deviation
from mean by the following formulae:
S.D =
√∑(Xi−X)2
N
Where,
S.D= Standard deviation
∑= Sum
Xi= Individual score
X= Mean of sample
N= Total no. of respondents
3.8.5
Z-test
Z-test was applied to compare the degree of responses given by the sampled respondents
with respect to climate change, perception and adaptation strategies of farmers, etc. The
mathematical form of Z test is given below:
`
𝑍=
̅ − µo
X
σ/ √n
Where,
̅ = Mean Score
X
µo = Population Mean
= Standard Deviation
√n = No. of Respondents
26
CHAPTER–IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
This chapter deals with the results of the study which emerged as a result of analysis
and interpretation of data. For better comprehension of the results, these have been presented
under different sections. Every section gives a detailed account of the results of the study and
presents an analytical view of the results by discussing its various dimensions and giving
relevant references at the appropriate places in agreement or disagreement of the results.
Keeping in view the objectives of study, results and discussion have been presented under the
following order:
4.1
Socio personal characteristics.
4.2
Technologies adopted by farmer for paddy cultivation.
4.3
Decision making and work share for farm operation by the farmers.
4.4
Awareness of farmers about climate change.
4.5
Perception of farmer regarding climate change in general.
4.6
Perception of farmers towards effect of climate change on paddy production.
4.7
Adaptation strategies adopted by farmers to reduce effect of climate change in paddy
production.
4.8
4.1
Suggestions by farmers to mitigate the effect of climate change.
Socio personal characteristics
The information regarding socio-personal characteristics of selected farmers which
include age, education, operational land holding, agricultural machinery owned, crop grown,
mass media exposure, extension contacts, member/office bearer of organizations and
participation in extension activities was analyzed. The information pertaining to the socio
personal characteristics of the farmers has been given in Table 4.1.
4.1.1
Age
Data in Table 4.1 indicate that age of the respondents varied from 30-80 years. More
than half of the respondents i.e. 54.66 per cent of respondents belonged to the age group of
30-46 years while 32.66 per cent of them were in the age group of 47-63 years and rest of
respondents (12.68%) was belonging to the age group of 64-80 years. It can be concluded that
maximum numbers of the respondents were of the young age group i.e. 30-46years. The
findings of the study are line with the findings of Mustapha (2012) and in contradiction to
Kisauzi et al (2012)
Age
12.68%
30-46
47-63
32.66%
54.66%
64-80
Fig. 4.1: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their age
4.1.2
Family type
The data pertaining to family type in Table 4.1 indicate that more than half of the
respondents (54.00%) belonged to joint family while 46.00 per cent had nuclear family.
Family Type
46%
54%
Nuclear
Joint
Fig. 4.2: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their family type
28
Table 4.1: Distribution of respondents according to socio personal characteristics
n = 150
S. No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Socio-Personal Characteristics
Category
Age (years)
f
%
30-46
82
54.66
47-63
49
32.66
64-80
19
12.68
Nuclear
69
46.00
Joint
81
54.00
Small (<4 members)
50
33.34
Medium (5-8)
81
54.00
Large (> 8 members)
19
12.67
Married
150
100.00
Unmarried
0
00.00
Illiterate
6
04.00
Primary school
13
08.66
Middle
9
06.00
Matriculation
45
30.00
Senior secondary
54
36.00
Graduates
14
09.33
Postgraduates
9
06.00
Marginal(<2.5)
1
00.67
Small(2.5-5)
7
04.67
Semi-Medium(5-10)
34
22.67
Medium(10-25)
61
40.67
Large(>25)
47
31.33
15-26
116
77.33
27-38
26
17.33
39-50
8
05.33
Family type
Family size
Marital status
Educational qualification
Operational land holding (in
acres)
Farming experience(years)
29
4.1.3
Family size
The data in Table 4.1 depicts that, more than half of the respondents (54.00%) had 5-
8 members in their family, 12.67 per cent had family size more than 8 members. Whereas one
third (33.34%) of the respondents had small family having member less than 4 members in
the family. The findings were in agreement with Mustapha (2012).
Family size
60
54%
50
Percentage
40
33.34%
30
20
12.67%
10
0
Small (<4 members)
Medium (5-8)
Large (> 8 members)
Fig. 4.3: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their family size
4.1.4
Marital status
The data presented in Table 4.1 reveal that all the farmers were married while no one
belongs to unmarried category.
4.1.5
Education
Data presented in Table 4.1 pertaining to education of the respondents show that more
than one third (36%) of the respondents educated up to senior secondary, 30.00 per cent
educated upto matriculation followed by 9.33 per cent of the respondents educated upto
graduation level whereas equal percentage of the respondents were educated upto middle and
Post graduation. Very few (4%) were illiterate. The findings of the study contradict the
findings of Mustapha (2012).
30
Percentage
Educational qualification
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
36%
30%
8.66%
4%
9.33%
6%
6%
Fig. 4.4: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their educational qualification
4.1.6
Operational land holding
It was observed from the data presented in Table 4.1 that 40.67 per cent respondents
had medium (10-25 acres) operational land holdings, about 22.67 per cent of the respondents
had semi-medium (5-10 acres) operational land holdings, near about one third i.e. 31.33 per
cent of the respondents had large (> 25 acres) operational land holdings followed by 4.67 per
cent of the respondents had small (2.5-5.0 acres) while very few (0.67%) had marginal (<2.5
acres) operational land holdings. So it was observed that most of the farmers fell in the
category of medium land holdings (10-25) acres.
Operational Land Holding
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
40.67%
31.33%
22.67%
0.67%
4.67%
Fig. 4.5: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their operational land holding
31
4.1.7
Farming experience
The data in Table 4.1 reveals that the more than three fourth (77.33%) farmers had
15-26 years while 17.33 per cent had 27-38 years of farming experiences respectively. Only
5.33 per cent of the farmer had 39-50 years of farming experience. The findings were in line
with the findings of Dhanya and Ramachandran(2015) as most of the respondents had
experience more than 15 years.
Farming experience
5.33%
17.33%
15-26
27-38
39-50
77.33%
Fig 4.6: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their farming experience
4.1.8
Cropping pattern
The data in the Table 4.2 reveals that 100.00 per cent of the farmers practiced Paddy-
Wheat as cropping pattern. 8.67 per cent had Paddy-Wheat-sathi Maize, 16.67 per cent had
Paddy-Wheat-sathi Moong, 8.00 per cent had Paddy- Potato-sathi Maize, 9.34 per cent had
Paddy-Potato-sathi Moong, 2.00 per cent had Paddy-Winter Maize while 9.34 per cent had
Paddy/Cotton-Wheat cropping pattern respectively.
Table 4.2: Distribution of the respondents according to the cropping pattern followed
by them
n=150
S. No.
Cropping pattern
f*
%
1
Paddy-Wheat
150
100.00
2
Paddy/Cotton-Wheat
14
09.34
3
Paddy-Wheat-Sathi Maize
13
08.67
4
Paddy-Wheat-Sathi Moong
25
16.67
5
Paddy-Potato-Sathi Maize
12
08.00
6
Paddy-Potato-Sathi Moong
14
09.34
7
Paddy-Winter Maize
3
02.00
*Multiple response
32
4.1.9 Mass Media Exposure
The data in Table 4.3 depicts that half of the respondents (50.66%) had medium mass
media exposure. Fourty four per cent had low mass media exposure while only few farmers
i.e. 5.33 per cent had high mass media exposure.
Table 4.3: Distribution of respondents according to their mass media exposure
n=150
S. No.
Mass media exposure
f
%
1
Low (14-19)
66
44.00
2
Medium (20-25)
76
50.66
3
High (26-32)
8
05.33
Mass media exposure
5.33%
44%
Low (14-19)
Medium (20-25)
High (26-32)
50.66%
Fig 4.7: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their mass media exposure
4.1.9
Extension Contacts
The data set in Table 4.4 indicates that more than half (56%) had medium extension
contacts followed by 40.00 per cent had low and 4.00 per cent had high extension contacts
respectively.
Table 4.4: Distribution of respondents according to their extension contacts
n=150
S No.
Extension contacts
f
%
1
Low (9-12)
60
40.00
2
Medium (13-16)
84
56.00
3
High (17-20)
6
04.00
33
Extension Contacts
4.00%
40.00%
Low (9-12)
Medium (13-16)
High (17-20)
56.00%
Fig 4.8: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their Extension contacts
4.2 Technologies adopted by farmer for paddy cultivation
4.2.1 Technology for transplantation
The data presented in Table 4.5 indicated that 100 per cent of the farmer practiced
manual transplantation of paddy while only 4.66 per cent of the farmer had practiced direct
seeded rice. There was not a single farmer who practiced mechanical transplantation. This is
because of easily availability of labour for transplantation and complex procedure involved in
mechanical transplantation.
Table 4.5: Distribution of respondents according to technologies adopted by farmers
n=150
S. No.
Technology adopted
f*
%
150
100.00
1
Puddled manual transplanted
2
Direct seeded rice (DSR)
7
04.66
3
Puddled mechanical transplanted
0
00.00
*Multiple response
4.2.2
Type of farming
The data in Table 4.6 reveals that 100 per cent of the farmer adopted conventional
farming. Only few farmers (3.33%) had organic by default. No farmer had certified organic
farming. This is due to the fact that farmers earn more than organic and process of organic
certification is difficult.
34
Table 4.6: Distribution of respondent according to adoption of type of farming
n=150
S. No.
Type of farming
f*
%
150
100.00
1
Conventional
2
Organic by default
5
3.33
3
Certified organic
0
00.00
* Multiple response
4.2.3 Source of Irrigation
The Table 4.7 depict that 43.34 per cent had river as their source of irrigation while
54.67 per cent have open well (monoblock pumps) as a source of irrigation. More than
(59.34%) of the farmers had bore well and only one respondent had tank as a source of
irrigation. No one had only rain as their source of irrigation.
Table 4.7: Distribution of respondent according to main source of irrigation
n=150
S. No.
Source of irrigation
f*
%
1
River\Canal
65
43.34
2
Tank
1
00.66
3
Bore-well (Submersible pumps)
89
59.34
4
Open-well (Monoblock pumps)
82
54.67
5
Only Rain
0
00.00
* Multiple response
4.2.4 Mode of cultivation
The data in Table 4.8 reveals that majority (92.66%) of the farmers had their own
tractor. Only 7.33 per cent farmers used the leased tractors. No farmer had been cultivating
with animals/bullocks and working with hands.
Table 4.8: Distribution of respondents according to mode of cultivation
n=150
S. No.
Mode
f*
%
1
Own tractor
139
92.66
2
Leased tractor
11
07.33
3
Bullocks/Animal power/Working with hand tools
0
00.00
* Multiple response
35
4.3
Decision making and work share for farm operation by the farmers
4.3.1
Decision taken for farm operation
It was observed from Table 4.9 that 62.67 per cent of the respondents take their
decision regarding farming themselves. Only 18.00 per cent involve other family members
whereas slightly less than one fifth (19.33%) of the respondents take collective decision
regarding farming.
Table 4.9: Distribution of respondents according to decision taken for farm operation
n=150
S. No.
A.
Statements
Decision taken for farm operations
f*
%
1
Farmer himself
94
62.67
2
Farmer’s wife
0
00.00
3
Other family members
27
18.00
4
It’s a collective decision
29
19.33
* Multiple response
4.3.2
Work done on farm
The Table 4.10 depicts that most (88%) of the respondent hired labour on daily
wages while more than three fourth of the farmers had (78%) permanent labour whereas
69.00 per cent of respondents themselves involved in work while half of the respondent
(50%) involve other family member in the work on farm.
Table 4.10: Distribution of respondents according to work done on farm
n=150
S. No.
Aspects
f*
%
1
Farmer himself
104
69.00
2
Farmer’s wife
0
00.00
3
Other family members
75
50.00
4
Permanent labour
117
78.00
5
Daily wages labour
132
88.00
* Multiple response
4.3.3
Advise for Farming Decision
The data in Table 4.11 depict that more than sixty per cent i.e. 68.00 per cent use their
own experience for making farming decision. Slightly more than half of the respondents
36
(51.34%) took advice from the pesticide dealer because they were the credible source for
farmers whereas 32.67 per cent took advice from family and friends. The advice from other
farmer and organizations was taken by 12.67 per cent of the respondents and 36 per cent took
advice from media. Only 26.00 per cent advice was taken from extension personnel’s and
28.67 per cent took advice from other person like arthia’s respectively.
Table 4.11:
Distribution of respondents according to advice taken for making a
farming decision
n=150
S. No.
Source of taken advise
f*
%
1
Own experience
102
68.00
2
Family and Friends
49
32.67
3
Farmer’s wife
0
00.00
4
Sarpanch of the village
0
00.00
5
Other farmers/farmers’ club/society/organization
19
12.67
6
Village priest
0
00.00
7
Extension personnel
39
26.00
8
Media releases (TV, radio, newspaper)
54
36.00
9
Pesticide dealer
77
51.34
10
Others (Arthia’s etc.)
43
28.67
* Multiple response
4.3.4
Comparison with other farmers
The data in Table 4.12 reveals that more than half of the respondents (56.67%)
followed their neighbouring farmers followed by slightly more than one third (34.67%) of the
respondents like to do new experiments and want to try new things whereas 8.66 per cent
continue their own traditional practices.
Table 4.12: Distribution of respondents according to practice followed are compared to
other farmers
n=150
Comparison with other farmers
f*
%
1
Like to do experiments and try new things
52
34.67
2
Follow neighbouring farmers
85
56.67
3
Continue to follow own traditional practices
13
08.66
S. No.
* Multiple response
37
4.3.5
Type of farming
The Table 4.13 reveals that 100 per cent of the respondents did commercial farming
while majority (94%) practice both type of farming. No one was interested in practicing
subsistence farming. The commercial farming provides more net return to the farmers.
Table 4.13: Distribution of respondents according to commercial or subsistence farming
n=150
S. No.
Type of Farming
1
Commercial
2
Subsistence farming
3
Kind of both
4.3.6
f
%
150
100.00
0
00.00
141
94.00
Hired labour
The data in Table 4.14 show that majority (88 %) of the respondents frequently
needed the labour. More than three fourth(78%) of the respondents hired labour permanently
while only 4.66 per cent respondents needed the labour during sowing and harvesting season.
Table 4.14: Distribution of respondents according to labour hired for farm operation
n=150
S. No.
Time of labour hired
f*
%
1
Never
0
00.00
2
Frequently, as needed
132
88.00
3
Hired at least one permanent worker
117
78.00
4
Only during sowing and harvesting period
7
04.66
*Multiple responses
4.3.7 Size of Farm
It is evident from Table 4.15 that 44.67 per cent of the respondents perceived that
their farm was an average size farm as compared to other farms. 24.67 per cent thought their
farm as small whereas 30.67 per cent perceived their farm as big as compared as compared to
other.
Table 4.15: Distribution of respondents according to perceived land holding
n=150
S. No.
Size of farm compared to other farms
f
%
1
An average farm in the area
67
44.67
2
A relatively small farm
37
24.67
3
A relatively big farm
46
30.67
38
4.4 Awareness about climate change
The data in Table 4.16 reveals that 98.67 per cent of the respondents perceive that
climate is changing while only 1.33 per cent perceived that the climate is not changing.
Table 4.16: Distribution of respondents according to their awareness about climate
change
S. No.
Statement
1
n=150
No
Yes
Have you heard the word climate change
f
%
f
%
148
98.67
2
01.33
A perusal of data in Table 4.17 show that the source of awareness about the climate
change of majority (81.75%) was television followed by 72.29 per cent of the respondents had
newspaper as the source of awareness 31.08 per cent had internet, one fourth (25%) had
radio, and 23.64 per cent had pesticide stores as source of awareness respectively. Whereas
22.99 per cent had govt. agencies followed by one fifth (20.94%) of the respondents had
neighbor, 9.46 per cent had family, 8.78 per cent had farmer clubs/cooperative society as
source of awareness about climate change.
Table 4.17: Distribution of respondents according to their source of awareness about
climate change
n=148
S. No.
Source
f*
%
1
Television
121
81.75
2
Internet
46
31.08
3
Radio
37
25.00
4
Family
14
09.46
5
Newspaper
107
72.29
6
Neighbours
31
20.94
7
Govt. agencies
34
22.99
8
Chief (Sarpanch)
0
00.00
9
Farmers club / Co-operative society
13
08.78
10
Pesticide stores/companies
35
23.64
11
Others (Arthia)
39
26.35
4.5 Perception of the farmer regarding climate change
The Table 4.18 show that more than one third (76.35%) were extremely sure that
climate change had happened whereas 20.94 per cent were somewhat sure that climate change
had happened. Only 2.67 per cent perceived that climate change was not happened.
39
Table 4.18: Distribution of respondents according to their perception about climate
change
n=148
S. No.
Perception about climate change
f
%
1
Extremely sure it has happened
113
76.35
2
Somewhat sure it has happened
31
20.94
3
Not sure it has happened
4
02.70
Perception about climate change
3%
21%
Extremely sure
Somewhat sure
Not sure
76%
Fig 4.9:
Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception about happening
of climate change
4.5.1
Perception of farmers regarding cause, effect and reasons for climate change
The data in Table 4.19 reveal that most of the respondents (80.40%) perceived human
beings this is due to fact that human beings cause over exploitation of resources followed by
78.37 per cent of the respondents perceived naturally happening and 61.48 per cent perceived
industries are responsible for climate change. Half (50%) of the respondents perceived that
government/ politician’s, 39.19 per cent perceived injudicious use of natural resources, 27.02
per cent perceived god and only 11.48 per cent
perceived developed countries to be
responsible for climate change.
Further it was revealed from the Table majority (82.43%) of respondents perceived
temperature is higher than before as one of the effect of climate change, 69.59 per cent of the
respondents thought rainfall pattern is shifting, 45.27 per cent thought air pollution is more
40
than before and 35.81 per cent perceived sunshine hours are fluctuating were the major effects
of climate change. While 23.64 per cent and only 6.08 per cent thought there are more
drought and floods than before respectively as the effects of climate change. The findings
were in line with Benedicta et al (2010)
Data set in Table 4.19 also reveal that majority (91.21%) of the farmers thought more
usage of chemicals in agriculture, 60.13 per cent perceived over exploitation of natural
resources and 45.27 per cent thought paddy production as main reasons for climate change.
Whereas 22.29 per cent thought that lack of appropiate machinery was also a reason for
climate change.
Table 4.19: Distribution of respondents according to their perceived cause, effect and
reasons for climate change
S. No.
Causes
f*
n=148
%
1
Naturally happening
116
78.37
2
God responsible
40
27.02
3
Human beings in general
119
80.40
4
Evil
0
00.00
5
Developed countries
17
11.48
6
Industry
91
61.48
7
Government/politician’s
74
50.00
8
Un-judicious usage of natural resources
58
39.19
122
82.43
Effects
1
Temperature is higher than before
2
More floods than before
9
06.08
3
More droughts than before
35
23.64
4
Air is more polluted than before
67
45.27
5
Sunshine hours are fluctuating
53
35.81
6
Rainfall pattern is shifting
103
69.59
Reasons
1
More usage of chemicals in agriculture
135
91.21
2
Over exploitation of natural resources
89
60.13
3
Appropriate machinery is lacking
33
22.29
4
Livestock
0
0.00
5
Paddy production
67
45.27
* Multiple response
41
4.5.2
Perception of farmers regarding precipitation
The data in Table 4.20 reveal that one fourth of the farmers (25%) thought there was
late onset of monsoon, 27.70 per cent thought the arrival of monsoon was on time. While
39.86 per cent perceived early onset of monsoon and only 7.43 per cent perceived there was
no effect on arrival of monsoon.
Table 4.20: Distribution of respondents according to perception regarding the arrival of
monsoon
n=148
S. No.
Arrival of monsoon
f
%
1
Late onset of monsoon
37
25.00
2
Timely
41
27.70
3
Early onset of monsoon
59
39.86
4
No effect
11
07.43
Arrival of Monsoon
39.86%
40
35
30
27.7%
25%
25
20
15
7.43%
10
5
0
Late
Timely
Early
No effect
Fig 4.10: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception regarding arrival
of monsoon
4.5.3
Perception of farmers regarding duration of precipitation
It is evident from Table 4.21 that 63.52 per cent of respondents perceived the duration
of rainy days had decreased whereas 20.94 per cent perceived there was increase in the
duration of rainy season during paddy season and 15.54 per cent thought there was no effect
on duration of rainy days during paddy season. The findings were in line with Dhanya and
Ramachandran (2015) and Nyanga et al (2011) as in their study they found that the rainy days
had decreased.
42
Table 4.21: Distribution of respondents according to perception regarding the duration
of rainy days in paddy season
S. No.
Duration of rainy days in paddy season
f
n=148
%
1
Increased
31
20.94
2
Decreased
94
63.52
3
No effect
23
15.54
Duration of rainy days in paddy season
63.52%
70
60
50
40
20.94%
30
15.54%
20
10
0
Increased
Decreased
No effect
Fig 4.11: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception regarding
duration of rainy days in paddy season
4.5.4 Perception of farmers regarding affect on future generation
The Table 4.22 depict
that slightly less than half (49.32%) of the respondents
perceived that climate change is going to effect the future generation in a great deal, 12.83 per
cent perceived that climate change would affect moderately and only 7.43 per cent perceived
that it would not have any effect on future generation. While 30.40 per cent responded that
they do not have any perception about the effect of climate change on future generations.
Table 4.22: Distribution of respondents according to perceived effect on future
generations
S. No.
Effect on future generations
f
n=148
%
1
Less affected
11
07.43
2
Moderately affected
19
12.83
3
Highly affected
73
49.32
4
Don’t know
45
30.40
43
4.5.5 Tackle to climate change
It was observed from the Table 4.23 that 95.94 per cent perceived that by planting
more trees problem of climate can be tackled while 45.27 per cent and 34.45 per cent thought
by practicing organic farming and the limiting the use of machinery respectively the problem
of climate change could be tackled.
Table 4.23:
Distribution of respondents according to perceived mode of tackling
climate change
n=148
S. No.
Tackle to climate change
f*
%
1
By Planting more trees
142
95.94
2
By organic farming
67
45.27
3
By limiting the use of machinery
51
34.45
4
By worshiping
0
00.00
* Multiple response
4.5.6
Degree of perception
The Table 4.24 depict that the mean score with respect to climate change, monsoon,
rainy days and effect of climate on future generation came out 2.74, 3.00, 2.05 and 2.81
respectively. The result of Z-value indicated that the response of the farmer was significant
with climate, monsoon and future generations whereas it was non significant with regards to
response of rainy days.
Table 4.24: Degree of perception of farmers toward their effect on climate change,
monsoon, rainy days and future generation
n=148
S. No.
Parameters
Mean
SD
Z value
1
Climate
2.74
0.50
18.05*
2
Monsoon
3.00
0.98
6.27*
3
Rainy days
2.05
0.60
1.10(NS)
4
Future generation
2.81
1.33
2.87*
NS=Non-Significant, *Significant at 0.01 level, **Significant at 0.05 level of significance
4.6 Perception of farmers towards effect of climate change on paddy production
The perception of farmers regarding effect of climate change on paddy production
was sought and is presented in Table 4.24.The data revealed that majority of the respondents
(70.27%) agreed that climate change was effecting paddy production.
44
Table 4.25: Distribution of respondents according to perception towards effect of
climate change on paddy production
n=148
S.
No.
Statements
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
f
f
%
f
%
%
1
Paddy production is affected
104
70.27
44
29.72
0
00.00
2
Affecting date of transplantation of the crop
72
48.64
51
34.45
25
16.89
3
Selection of varieties to be sown
76
51.35
61
41.21
11
07.43
4
Delaying crop maturity
83
56.08
59
39.86
6
04.05
5
Affecting number of irrigation
95
64.18
44
29.72
9
06.08
6
Changing the fertilizer application in the
crop
87
58.78
41
27.70
20
13.51
7
Leading to new weeds infestation
46
31.08
71
47.97
31
20.94
8
More outbreak of insect pests
93
62.83
46
31.08
9
06.08
9
More outbreak of diseases
116
78.37
32
21.62
0
00.00
10
Crop quality affected
109
73.64
32
21.62
7
4.72
11
Net income from the crop
108
72.27
36
24.32
4
02.90
A perusal of Table 4.25 reveal that more than three fourth (78.37 %) of the
respondents agreed with the statement that climate change lead to more outbreak of diseases
whereas 21.62 per cent of the respondents had neutral response. The quality of crop is
effected due to climate change because of climate change was perceived by 73.64 per cent of
the respondents and very few (4.72%) had neutral response towards this statement. The whole
effect of climate change is on the net income of the farmer, 72.27 per cent agreed and near
about one fourth of the respondents had neutral response towards the statement that climate
change affects the net income. The respondents in agreement with the statement that climate
change effects the paddy production were found to be 70.27 per cent whereas there was no
respondent that disagreed the statement. Slightly less than sixty five per cent i.e. 64.18 per
cent agreed and only few (6.08%) disagreed with the statement that climate change effects the
number of irrigations. More than sixty i.e. 62.83 per cent agreed and 31.08 per cent had
neutral response to the statement that there is more outbreak of insect pest due to climate
change. The statement that climate change lead to change in the time period of fertilizer
application was agreed by 58.78 per cent of the respondents and disagreed by 13.51 per cent
of the respondents.
45
Perception of farmers towards effect of climate change on paddy production
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
46
Agreed
20
Neutral
10
disagree
0
Fig 4.12: Distribution of respondents on the basis of their perception of farmers towards effect of climate change on paddy production
More than half (56.08%) of the respondents agreed and 39.86 per cent of the
respondents had neutral response towards the statement that climate change lead to delay in
crop maturity. Slightly more than half (51.35%) agreed with the statement that climate change
effect in the selection of varieties to be sown and only 7.43 per cent disagreed with this
statement. More than fourty five i.e. 48.64 per cent agreed and 16.89 per cent disagreed with
the statement that climate change affect the date of transplantation of the crop. Less than one
(31.08%) agreed and 20.94 per cent disagreed with the statement that climate change lead to
new infestation of weeds. The findings are in line with Reilly and Schimmelfenning (1999),
Majundar (2008) as in study he emphasized that climate change lead to decrease in paddy
production and Nyanga et al (2011).
4.6.1 Degree of perception towards effect of climate change
The data in Table 4.26 depict that the mean score of the three items i.e. affecting
number of irrigation, changing the fertilizer application in the crop, more outbreak of insect
pests were 2.58, 2.45 and 2.57 and found to be non significant with respect to climate change
on paddy production and whereas all other statements namely paddy production is affected,
affecting date of transplantation of the crop, selection of varieties to be sown, delaying crop
maturity, leading to new weeds infestation, more outbreak of diseases, crop quality affected,
net income from the crop were having mean score 2.72, 2.32, 2.34, 2.33, 2.10, 2.78, 2.69 and
2.70 respectively and were found to be significant with the perception of the farmers
regarding climate change.
Table 4.26: Degree of perception towards effect of climate change on paddy
production
S. No.
Statements
Mean
SD
n=148
Z value
1
Paddy production is affected
2.72
0.452
5.583*
2
Affecting date of transplantation of the crop
2.32
0.747
3.154*
3
Selection of varieties to be sown
2.34
0.687
2.948*
4
Delaying crop maturity
2.33
0.704
3.114*
5
Affecting number of irrigation
2.58
0.606
1.436(NS)
6
Changing the fertilizer application in the crop
2.45
0.722
0.972(NS)
7
Leading to new weeds infestation
2.10
0.717
6.985*
8
More outbreak of insect pests
2.57
0.608
1.160(NS)
9
More outbreak of diseases
2.78
0.413
8.118*
10
Crop quality affected
2.69
0.558
3.936*
11
Net income from the crop
2.70
0.515
4.587*
NS=Non-Significant, *Significant at 0.01 level, **Significant at 0.05 level of significance
47
4.7
Adaptation strategies adopted by farmers to reduce effect of climate change in
paddy production
Adaptation refers to those responses or actions taken to enhance resilience of
vulnerable systems, thereby reducing damages to human and natural system from climate
change and variability. The adaptation strategies of the farmers to reduce the effect of climate
change on paddy production are presented in Table 4.27. The Table revealed majority of the
farmers (82.43%) were availing weather forecast they mitigate the effect of climate change in
paddy production. More than three fourth (76.35%) of the respondents opined that by using
laser land management practices like leaser leveler they mitigate the effect of climate change
during paddy production. While 26.35 per cent by using resource conservation technologies,
28.37 per cent by adopting soil moisture conservation methods, 11.48 per cent by stopping the
burning of crop residue and only 10.81 per cent by using insect pest management techniques
they mitigate the effect of climate on paddy production.
Table 4.27: Distribution of respondents according to adaptation strategies adopted by
farmers keeping in view the climate change
n=148
S. No.
Adopted strategies
f*
%
1
Use of resource conservation technologies
39
26.35
2
Organic farming (Basmati)
0
0.00
3
Adopting rain harvesting methods
1
00.67
4
Adopting soil moisture conservation methods
42
28.37
5
Site specific nutrient management
35
23.64
6
Using short duration crop varieties
135
91.21
7
Fallowing integrated farming system
67
45.21
8
Changing planting dates
71
47.97
9
Changing the cropping pattern
9
06.08
10
Land management practices
113
76.35
11
Using insect pest management
16
10.81
12
Availing weather forecast service
122
82.43
13
Stop burning of crop residue
17
11.48
14
Reducing tillage practices
18
12.16
15
Reducing usage of chemical fertilizers
13
08.78
16
Water management and conservation techniques
57
38.58
*Multiple response
48
The data in Table 4.27 also reveal that 23.64 per cent of the farmers mitigate the
effect of climate change by using site specific nutrient management and 45.21 per cent
responded that by fallowing integrated farming system they can mitigate the effect of climate
change. Use of short duration varieties (91.21%) and by reducing tillage practices (12.16%)
were the other strategies that were adopted by farmers to mitigate the effect of climate change
on paddy production. While very few i.e.6.08 per cent, 0.67 per cent and 8.78 per cent opined
that by changing cropping pattern, by adopting rain harvesting methods and reducing the use
of chemical fertilizers they mitigate the effect of climate change on paddy production. 38.58
per cent opined to use water management and conservation techniques and near about half
(47.97%) opined to change the planting dates to mitigate the effect of climate change. No one
opined to practice organic farming to mitigate the effect of climate change. The findings were
in agreement with Dobermann et al (2002), Shugart et al (2003), Smithers and Smith (1997)
and Roncoli et al (2002)
4.7.1 Degree of responses to adaptation strategies
Data in Table 4.28 depict that the five items i.e. use of resource conservation
technologies, Organic farming, Adopting soil moisture conservation methods, Site specific
nutrient management, Water management and conservation techniques with mean score 0.26,
0.00,0.28 and 0.39 were found to be non significant with the strategies towards climate
change and Site specific nutrient management with mean score 0.24 were significant at 0.05
level of significance whereas the rest of the statements i.e. adopting rain harvesting methods,
using short duration crop varieties, fallowing integrated farming system, changing planting
dates, changing the cropping pattern, land management practices, using insect pest
management, availing weather forecast service, stop burning of crop residue, reducing
tillage practices, reducing usage of chemical fertilizers, water management and conservation
techniques were having mean score0.01, 0.91, 0.45, 0.48, 0.06, 0.76, 0.11, 0.82, 0.11, 0.12
and 0.09 respectively had significant relation with the adaptation strategies towards climate
change.
49
Table 4.28: Degree of responses according to adaptation strategies adopted by farmers
keeping in view the climate change
n=148
S. No.
Adoption strategies
Mean
SD
Z value
1
Use of resource conservation technologies
0.26
0.442 1.565(NS)
2
Organic farming (Basmati)
0.00
0.000
0(NS)
3
Adopting rain harvesting methods
0.01
0.082
46.672*
4
Adopting soil moisture conservation methods
0.28
0.452 0.981(NS)
5
Site specific nutrient management
0.24
0.426 2.399(NS)
6
Using short duration crop varieties
0.91
0.284
25.535*
7
Fallowing integrated farming system
0.45
0.499
3.254*
8
Changing planting dates
0.48
0.501
3.903*
9
Changing the cropping pattern
0.06
0.240
13.238*
10
Land management practices
0.76
0.426
12.740*
11
Using insect pest management
0.11
0.312
8.329*
12
Availing weather forecast service
0.82
0.382
16.176*
13
Stop burning of crop residue
0.11
0.320
7.853*
14
Reducing tillage practices
0.12
0.328
7.408*
15
Reducing usage of chemical fertilizers
0.09
0.284
10.011*
16
Water management and conservation techniques
0.39
0.488 1.634(NS)
NS=Non-Significant, *Significant at 0.01 level, **Significant at 0.05 level of significance
4.8
Suggestions by farmers to mitigate the effect of climate change
Suggestion of the farmers regarding mitigation of climate change effects was taken
and the same has been presented in Table 4.29. reveals that more than half of the respondents
(52.70%) suggested that there should be varieties that are resistant to various insect-pest and
weeds followed by 45.27 per cent respondent those suggested that varieties resistant to
lodging should be developed.
50
Table 4.29: Distribution of respondents according to suggestions to mitigate the effect
of climate change
n=148
S. No.
Suggestions
f*
%
1
Resistance varieties to insect-pest and diseases should be
developed
78
52.70
2
Varieties resistance to temperature and water stress
should be developed
43
29.05
3
Varieties resistance to lodging should be developed
67
45.27
4
Techniques like Direct seeded rice (DSR)should be
promoted to control decline in water Table
39
26.35
5
Government should make policies for paddy straw
management providing subsidy on recommended
machinery
13
08.78
*Multiple response
While 29.05 per cent of respondents suggested to develop varieties that can withstand
in adverse weather conditions. 26.35 per cent of respondent suggested promoting techniques
like direct seeded rice (DSR) to stable water Table. Very few farmers (8.78%) suggested that
government should make policies for paddy straw management and provide subsidies on
machinery to mitigate the effect of climate change.
51
CHAPTER-V
SUMMARY
Climate change is likely to directly impact on food production across the globe. Increase
in the mean seasonal temperature can reduce the duration of many crops and hence reduce final
yield. In areas where temperatures are already close to the physiological maxima for crops,
warming will impact yields more immediately (IPCC 2007). World agriculture faces a serious
decline within this century due to global warming. Overall, agricultural productivity for the entire
world is projected to decline between 3.00 per cent and 16.00 per cent by 2080. Developing
countries, many of which have an average temperature that are already near or above crop
tolerance levels, are predicted to suffer an average 10.00 to 25.00 per cent decline in agricultural
productivity the 2080s. Rich countries, which have typically lower average temperatures, will
experience a much milder or even positive average effect, ranging from 8.00 per cent increase in
productivity to a 6.00 per cent decline. Individual developing countries face even larger declines.
India, for example, could see a drop of 30.00 per cent to 40.00 per cent .India’s agriculture is
more dependent on monsoon from the ancient periods. Any change in monsoon trend drastically
affects agriculture. Even the increasing temperature is affecting the Indian agriculture. In the
Indo-Gangetic Plain, these pre monsoon changes will primarily affect the wheat crop (>0.5 o C
increase in time slice 2010-2039; IPCC 2007). In the states of Jharkhand, Odisha and
Chhattisgarh alone, rice production losses during severe droughts (about one year in five) average
about 40% of total production, with an estimated value of $800 million. The warming may be
more pronounced in the northern parts of India. The extremes in maximum and minimum
temperatures are expected to increase under changing climate, few places are expected to get
more rain while some may remain dry. Climate change scenarios include higher temperatures,
changes in precipitation, and higher atmospheric CO2 concentrations which may affect on yield
(both quality and quantity), growth rates, photosynthesis and transpiration rates, moisture
availability, through changes of water use (irrigation) and agricultural inputs such as herbicides,
insecticides and fertilizers etc. Environmental effects such as frequency and intensity of soil
drainage (leading to nitrogen leaching), soil erosion, land availability, reduction of crop diversity
may also affect agricultural productivity (Mahato 2014). Taking in view all the aspects the present
study entitled “Perception and adaptation strategies of Punjab paddy growers towards climate
change” was planned under specific objectives.
5.1 Objectives
5.1.1
To study the socio economic characteristics of the paddy growers
5.1.2
To study the perception of the paddy growers regarding climate change
5.1.3
To study the adaptation strategies being followed by the farmers in paddy
production
On the basis of five agro-climatic zones, one district from each zone, three blocks from
each district and further one village from each block was selected randomly. From each village,
ten farmers having experience of fifteen year paddy cultivation were selected randomly. Thus, a
total of 150 farmers were selected from the fifteen villages of the five selected districts.
An interview schedule was designed and finalized in consultation with the members of
the advisory committee and by consulting relevant literature. It was consisted of following three
parts.
Part first consisted of the statements regarding the socio economic characteristics of the
farmers. Part second included statements regarding the maturity of crop, insect-pest outbreak,
quality, duration etc of paddy by the paddy growers regarding climate change. Part third was
comprised of the statements regarding different strategies being adopted by the farmers to cope up
with the climate change. The interview schedule was pretested on 20 non sampled farmers. The
possible ambiguities in the interview schedule have been located, eliminated and modified as per
the pattern of the farmers. Farmers were contacted for the purpose of pre-testing. Data were
collected personally by the researchers by visiting the study area and interviewing the farmers.
For receiving the response of respondents, the investigator contacted them personally in their
villages. Proper precautions were taken to ensure unbiased response of the respondents by
providing them necessary instructions after explaining the objectives of study. After the data
collection, the data were tabulated on master sheet for further processing. The tables were
prepared according to the objectives of the study. The data were analyzed with the help of Range,
frequency, percentage, Mean, Standard deviation and z-test.
5.2 Salient features of the study.
It was observed that more than half of the respondents (54.66%) were belonging to age
categories 30-46 years and were belonging to joint family and were educated. Also had medium
family size. All of them were married.40.67 per cent had medium land holding and more than
three fourth (77.33%) had farming experience of 15-26 years. Half of the respondent had medium
mass media exposure and extension contacts. The entire farmer had conventional type of farming.
The main sources of the irrigation were bore well and open well. Majority (92.66%) owned their
own tractor and had permanent labour for farm work. Sixty eight per cent and half of the farmer
(51.34%) use their own experience and took advice of pesticide dealer for making farming
decision respectively .Majority perceived that the climate was changing and had television as a
main source for information regarding climate change. Majority perceived natural happening as
cause of climate change, rising temperature as major effect and more use of chemicals in
agriculture as main reason for climate change. More than sixty per cent i.e. 63.52 per cent
perceived that the rainy days had decreased during the paddy production. Majority of them
53
perceived that by planting more trees the problem of climate change could be tackled. The
response of the farmer was significant with climate, monsoon and effect of climate change on
future generation, whereas non significant with the response of rainy days. Most of the respondent
agreed with the statements i.e. Paddy production is affected, affecting date of transplantation,
selection of varieties to be sown, delaying crop maturity, number of irrigation, outbreak of insectpest, diseases, crop quality and net income from the crop. The data showed that three statements
i.e. affecting number of irrigation, changing the fertilizer application in the crop, more outbreak of
insect pest were found to be non significant with respect to climate change on paddy production
and rest of the statements were significant with the respect to climate change. Majority of them
adopted short duration crop varieties. The five statements i.e. use of resource conservation
technologies, organic farming, adopting soil moisture conservation methods, site specific nutrient
management, water management and conservation techniques were found to be non significant
with the strategies towards climate change whereas the rest of the statements had significant
relation with the adaptation strategies towards with climate change. More than half (52.70%) of
the respondent suggested resistance varieties to insects-pest and diseases should be developed.
5.3 Suggestions based on findings:
1.
Awareness should be created among the farmers to adapt the strategies that mitigate the
effect of climate change.
2.
Stress tolerant varieties should be developed.
3.
Resource conservation technologies like Direct Seeded Rice should be promoted.
4.
Enhance farmer capability and improve resilience in response to climate change.
5.4 Suggestions for future research:
1.
Same study can be done in other state.
2.
Comparative study in different zones of country can be conducted.
3.
Attitude of the farmers towards climate change needs to be studied.
4.
Constraints of adaptation strategies can be studied.
54
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59
DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION
PUNJAB AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY, LUDHIANA
Title of the study “Perception and adaptation strategies of Punjab paddy growers towards
climate change”
APPENDIX-I
PART 1
Socio-personal characteristics of
1. Name : ____________
Father Name: ____________
Block: ____________
District:
Marital Status: Married
____________
Village:
____________
Contact No. ____________
/ Unmarried
2. Age (Yrs): _________
3. Family type
Joint family
Nuclear Family
4. Number of family members
____________________
a) Males (older than 16)
____________________
b) Female (older than 16)
_____________________
c) Kids (younger than 16)
_____________________
5. Education status
_____________________
Illiterate:
_____________________
Matric:
_____________
Senior secondary
_____________________
Graduation:
_____________
Post graduation
_____________________
Any other:
_____________
6. Land holding
a) Owned:
_____________________
b) Leased in:
_____________________
c) Leased out:
_____________________
d) Total (a+b)-c
_____________________
7. Experience of paddy cultivation(years) __________________
i
8. Which crops have you grown from last ten year?
Crop
Variety
Area (acres)
9. What is your most prominent crop rotation? (e.g. paddy, Wheat, Potato etc) _________
a. 1st Crop:
______________________________________
b. 2nd Crop:
______________________________________
c. 3rd Crop:
______________________________________
d. 4th Crop:
______________________________________
e. 5th Crop:
_______________________________________
10. Which production techniques have you followed in your paddy field?
a. Direct seeded rice (DSR):
__________________
b. Puddled manual transplanted rice:
__________________
c. Puddled Mechanical transplanted Rice:
__________________
d. Other:
__________________
11. How frequently do you read, listen or view the following sources for getting information
about
Sources
Always
Sometime
Never
a) Kheti Bari
________
________
________
b) Unnat Kheti
________
________
________
c) Dehati programme
________
________
________
d) Any other
________
________
________
i.
Farm broadcasts
ii
ii.
Farm telecasts
a) Mera pind, Mere khet
________
________
________
b) Chat show
________
________
________
c) Kisan channel
________
________
________
d) Any other (Markfed etc.)
________
________
________
iii.
Farm literature
a) Changi Kheti /Progressive Farming
________
________
________
b) Kheti Duniya
________
________
________
c) Modern Kheti
________
________
________
d) Newspaper
________
________
________
e) Package of practice
(Rabi/ Kharif)
________
_________
_________
f) Any other
________
________
_________
Always
Sometimes
Never
________
_________
_________
________
_________
_________
________
_________
_________
12. How frequently you contacted following extension agencies:
Sources
i)
Agriculture Development
Officer (ADO)
ii)
Horticulture Development
Officer (HDO)
iii)
Assistant Professor of Krishi
Vigyan Kendra
iv)
District Extension Specialist(DES)
________
_________
_________
v)
PAU scientists
________
_________
_________
vi)
Soil Conservation officer (SCO)
________
_________
_________
vii)
Secretary of village societies
________
_________
_________
viii)
Agriculture Officer in Bank
________
_________
_________
ix)
Any Other
________
_________
_________
iii
13. Are you member of following organizations? (Yes/No)
If Yes
Annual
Life member
a) PAU Kisan Club
________
_________
b) Agricultural Cooperative society
________
_________
c) Farmer’s club
________
_________
d) Member of PAU commîtes’
________
_________
e) Progressive farmers association
________
_________
f) Village youth club
________
_________
g) Any other
________
_________
14. Decision making and work share
A. Who makes most important decision in the family about farm operations?
a. Farmer himself
b. Farmer’s wife
c. Other family members - Who?
d. It’s a collective decision
B. What is the highest level of education of the person who makes decisions?
a. Uneducated
b. Primary School
c. High school
d. Secondary school
e. College level
C. Who does most of the work on the farm? (you can tick more than one)
a. Farmer himself
b. Farmer’s wife
c. Other family members - Who?
_____________
iv
d. Hired labour
e. Daily wages labour
D. Whose advice is most important for you while making a farming decision? e.g.
sowing date. (you can tick more than one)
a. Own experience
b. Family and Friends
c. Farmer’s wife
d. Chief (Sarpanch) of the village
e. Other farmers/farmers’ club/society/organisation
f. Village priest
g. Extension personnel ( Specify ________ )
h. Media releases (TV, radio, newspaper)
i. Pesticide dealer
j. Any Others?
________________
E. Where will you stand in comparison to others farmers ?
a. Like to experiment and try new things
b. Generally follow what your neighboring farmers are doing
c. Continue to follow your own practices
15. Structure and management of farm
A. Is it a commercial or subsistence farming?
a. Commercial
b. Subsistence farming
c. Kind of both
d. None of the above
B. Are you doing organic farming?
a. Yes, certified organic
b. Yes, organic by default
v
c. No, conventional
C. What is the main source of irrigation on your farm?
a. River
b. Canal
c. Tank
d. Bore-well (Submersible)
e. Open-well (Monoblock)
f. Rainfed
g. Any Other
________________
D. What is your most common source of cultivation on the farm?
a. Own tractor
b. Leased tractor
c. Bullocks/Animal power
d. Working with hands/hand tools only
E. How often do you hire labour for work on farm? (Tick one or more)
a. Never
b. Only during sowing or harvesting
c. Frequently, as needed
d. I have hired at least one permanent worker/labourer
F. If you look around in your village or area, do you consider the size of your farm as..
a. An average farm in the are
b. A relatively small farm
c. A relatively big farm
vi
Part 2: Perception of the farmer about effect of climate change on paddy production
1. Climate change in general
A. Have you heard of climate change?
a. Yes
b. No
B. If yes, where have you heard about climate change?
a. Television
b. Internet
c. Radio
d. Family
e. Newspaper
f. Neighbours
g. Govt. agencies
h. Chief (Sarpanch)
i. Farmers’ organisation/club/society
j. Pesticide store/ companies
k. Other - ____________
C. If yes, what do you know about it?
__________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________
D. Do you think climate change is really happening? ( Yes / No)
If yes

and you’re extremely sure

and you’re somewhat sure

but you’re not at all sure
If no

and you’re extremely sure

and you’re somewhat sure

but you’re not at all sure

you don’t know
vii
E. Why do you think climate is changing?
a. Because temperature is higher than before
b. Because there are more floods than before
c. Because there are more droughts than before
d. Because the air is more polluted than before
e. Because the sunshine hours are fluctuating
f. Because rainfall pattern is shifting
g. Other -
___________________________________
F. Who do you think is causing the climate change?
a. Naturally happening
b. God
c. Human beings in general
d. Evil
e. Developed countries
f. Industry
g. Government/ Politician’s
h. Un- judicious usage of natural resources
i. Other -
__________________________________
G. Do you think agriculture contributes to climate change? (Yes / No)
If yes, it is due to

More usage of chemicals in agriculture

Over exploitation of natural resources

Appropriate machinery is lacking

Livestock

Paddy production

Others -
_____________
viii
If No, then why?
_____________
H. What do you think about arrival of monsoon?
a. Late onset of monsoon
b. Timely
c. Early onset of monsoon
d. No effect
I. What do you think about rainy days in paddy season?
a. Increase
b. Decrease
c. Same
d. No effect
J. How much do you think climate change will harm future generations of people?
a. Not at all
b. Only a little
c. A moderate amount
d. A great deal
e. Don’t know
K. What do you think, how can we tackle climate change?
a. By Planting more trees
b. By organic farming
c. By limiting the use of machinery
d. By worshiping
e. Others -
___________________________
ix
2. Perception of Paddy growers towards climate change
Statements
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
1. Paddy production is affected
2. Affecting date of transplantation of the crop
3. Selection of varieties to be sown
4. Delayed crop maturity
5. Affecting number of irrigation
6. Changing the fertilizer application in crop
7. Leading to infestation of new weeds in the crop
8. Affecting the control measures of insect pest
9. More infestation with diseases
10. Crop quality infected
11. Affected the net income from the crop
12. Any other ____________________________________________________________
Part 3: Adaption strategies followed by paddy grower in view of climate change
Statements
Yes
No
1. Use of resource conservation technologies
________
__________
2. Organic farming (Basmati)
________
__________
3. Adopting rain harvesting methods
________
__________
4. By adopting soil moisture conservation methods
_________
__________
5. Site specific nutrient management techniques
________
__________
6. By using short duration crop varieties
_________
__________
7. By practicing integrated farming system
_________
__________
8. By changing planting dates
_________
__________
9. By changing the cropping pattern
_________
__________
10. Land management practices
_________
__________
x
11. By using insect pest management strategies
_________
__________
12. Availing weather forecast service
_________
_________
13. By stopping burning of crop residue
_________
__________
14. By reducing tillage practices
_________
__________
15. By reducing usage of chemical fertilizers
16. Any other _____________________________________________________________
Suggestion :______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________
I certify that all this information provided is true and I have no issues regarding providing the
information, as it may be proved useful for the research work of the student for both the
institutes involved.
Signature of the Farmer
___________________
xi
VITA
Name of the student
:
Harsimranjit Singh Brar
Father’s name
:
S. Charanjit Singh
Mother’s name
:
Smt. Rajvinder Kaur
Nationality
:
Indian
Date of birth
:
29.07.1992
Permanent home address
:
VPO Fatuhi Khera, Block Lambi
Tehsil Malout, Distract Sri Muktsar Sahib
Punjab
Bachelor degree
:
B.Sc. Agriculture (Hons.)
University and year of award
:
Punjab Agricultural University Ludhiana,
2014
OCPA
:
6.86/10.00
Master’s Degree
:
M.Sc. (Extension Education)
University and year of award
:
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana
2016
OCPA
:
7.15/10.00
Title of Master’s Thesis
:
Perception and adaptation strategies of Punjab
paddy growers towards climate change
EDUCATIONAL QUALIFICTION