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Learning • Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior(or behavior tendency)that occurs as a result of a person’s interaction with the environment • Learning occurs when the learner behaves differently • Example –you learned computer skills when you operate the key board and software more quickly than before • Learning occurs –interaction with the environment—leads to behavior change • Learn through our senses-such as through study -observation and experience Learning • Learning influences individual behavior and performance through three elements of the MARS model • Mars –Model of Individual Behavior and Results Individual Characteristics Motivation Situational factors Values Personality Perceptions Emotions and attitudes Stress Ability Role Perception Behavior and results Learning • Learning influences individual behavior and performance through three elements of the MARS model • First people acquire skills and knowledge through learning opportunities-gives them competencies • Second-Learning clarifies role perceptions –better understanding of their tasks(importance of employee engagement) • Third learning occurs through feedback which motivates employees when they se that they are accomplishing their tasks Learning Explicit and Tacit Knowledge • When employees learn they acquire both explicit and tacit knowledge • Explicit knowledge-is organized and can be communicated – information you receive in a lecture –instructor packages and transfers it to you • Tacit knowledge-is not documented-is action oriented and known below the level of consciousness -Tacit knowledge-organization’s culture and a team’s implicit normsvalues and norms exist –difficult to describe and document • Tacit knowledge is acquired through observation and direct experience-Pilots acquire tacit knowledge –by directly experiencing the complex interaction of behavior with machines response Theories of Learning Classical Conditioning A type of conditioning in which an individual responds to some stimulus that would not ordinarily produce such a response. Key Concepts • Unconditioned stimulus • Unconditioned response • Conditioned stimulus • Conditioned response Learning • Behavior Modification : Learning through Reinforcement • One of the oldest perspectives on learning called behavior modification (also known as operant conditioning theory) -Takes the rather extreme view that learning is completely dependent on the environment • Behavior modification does not question the notion that thinking is part of learning process-but views human thoughts as unimportant intermediate stages between behavior and the environment • The environment teaches us to alter our behaviors so that we maximize positive consequences and minimize adverse consequences Theories of Learning (cont’d) Operant Conditioning A type of conditioning in which desired voluntary behavior leads to a reward or prevents a punishment. Key Concepts • Reflexive (unlearned) behavior • Conditioned (learned) behavior • Reinforcement Learning • A-B-Cs of Behavior Modification • The central objective of behavior modification is to change behavior(B) by managing its antecedents(A) and consequences(C) Antecedents What happens before behavior Behavior What person says or does Consequences What happens after behavior Operator switches off the machine’s power supply Co-workers thank operator for stopping the machine • Examples Warning light flashes on operators console Learning • Antecedents are important –behavior modification focuses mainly on the consequences of behavior • Consequences are events following a particular behavior that influences its future occurrence • People tend to repeat behaviors that are followed by pleasant consequences and are less likely to repeat behaviors that are followed by unpleasant consequences or no consequences at all Learning Contingencies of Reinforcement • Behavior modification identifies four types of consequences that strengthen –maintain-or weaken behavior • Positive Reinforcement- punishment-negative reinforcement-extinction Positive reinforcement • Positive reinforcement-occurs when the introduction of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior -Receiving a bonus after successfully completing an important project is considered positive reinforcement -why? It increases the probability that you will use those behaviors in future Learning Punishment • Punishment-occurs when a consequence decreases the frequency or future probability of a behavior • This consequence typically involves introducing something that employees try to avoid -Demotion or being ostracized by co-workers as forms of punishment Learning Negative reinforcement • Negative reinforcement –occurs when the removal or avoidance of a consequence increases or maintains the frequency or future probability of a specific behavior -Supervisors apply negative reinforcement when stop criticizing employees whose substandard performance has improved • When the criticism is withheld employees are more likely to repeat behaviors that improved their performance • Negative reinforcement is not punishment • It reinforces behavior by removing punishment Learning Extinction • Extinction –occurs when the target behavior decreases because no consequence follows it • Behavior that is no longer reinforced tends to disappear –it becomes extinct • Managers stop congratulating employees for their good performance –that performance tends to decline • Which contingency of reinforcement should we use in the learning process? Types of Reinforcement • Positive reinforcement – Providing a reward for a desired behavior. • Negative reinforcement – Removing an unpleasant consequence when the desired behavior occurs. • Punishment – Applying an undesirable condition to eliminate an undesirable behavior. • Extinction – Withholding reinforcement of a behavior to cause its cessation. Types of Reinforcement Schedules of Reinforcement • Along with the types of reinforcement –the frequency and timing of those reinforces also influence employee behavior • Reinforcement schedules can be continuous or intermittent • The most effective reinforcement schedule for learning new tasks is continuous reinforcement-providing positive reinforcement schedule after every occurrence of the desired behavior Schedules of Reinforcement Continuous Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced each time it is demonstrated. Intermittent Reinforcement A desired behavior is reinforced often enough to make the behavior worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed-Interval Schedule Rewards are spaced at uniform time intervals. Variable-Interval Schedule Rewards are initiated after a fixed or constant number of responses. Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) Fixed-ratio Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement Intermittent Schedules of Reinforcement (cont’d) Theories of Learning (cont’d) Social-Learning Theory People can learn through observation and direct experience. Three related features of social learning theory • Behavior modeling –through observation (tacit knowledge) • Learning behavior consequences-logic and observation-experience of others –vicarious learning • Self Reinforcement –less dependent on supervisors to dole out positive reinforcement and punishment Learning Learning through Experience • Motorola HR manager-testing her leadership skills • Many organizations are shifting their learning strategy away from the classroom and toward a more experiential approach • Kolb’s Experiential Learning Model-is a cyclical four stage process Concrete experience Active experimentation Abstract conceptualiz ation Reflective observation Experiential Learning in Practice • Learning through experience works best in organizations with a strong learning orientation • Learning orientation –The extent that an organization or individual supports knowledge management-particularly opportunities to acquire knowledge through experience and experiments Experiential Learning in Practice • Organizations achieve a learning orientation culture by rewarding experimentation and recognizing mistakes as a natural part of the learning process • Encourage employees to take risks to discover new and better ways of doing things Experiential Learning in Practice Action learning • A variety of experiential learning activities in which employees are involved in a real complex and stressful problem -in teams with immediate relevance to the company • Tasks becomes the source of learning • Action learning requires concrete experience with a real organizational problem or opportunity followed by learning meetings in which participants reflect on their observations about the problem or opportunity