Download Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and

G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Anthropocene
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ancene
Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and
contribution to Earth system science
Emilie H.G. Brévièrea,* , Dorothee C.E. Bakkerb , Hermann W. Bangea , Timothy S. Batesc,d ,
Thomas G. Belle , Philip W. Boydf , Robert A. Duceg , Véronique Garçonh ,
Martin T. Johnsonb , Cliff S. Lawi,j , Christa A. Marandinoa , Are Olsenk,l , Birgit Quacka ,
Patricia K. Quinnd, Christopher L. Sabined , Eric S. Saltzmanm
a
GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel, Germany
School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
c
Joint Institute for the Study of the Atmosphere and Ocean, University of Washington, Seattle, USA
d
Pacific Marine Environmental Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Seattle, USA
e
Plymouth Marine Laboratory, Plymouth, United Kingdom
f
Institute for Marine and Antarctic Studies, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia
g
Departments of Oceanography and Atmospheric Sciences, Texas A&M University, USA
h
Laboratoire d'Etudes en Geophysique et Océanographie Spatiales/UMR, 5566 Toulouse, France
i
National Institute of Water and Atmospheric Research, Wellington, New Zealand
j
Department of Chemistry, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
k
Geophysical Institute, University of Bergen, Norway
l
Bjerknes Centre for Climate Research, Bergen, Norway
m
School of Physical Sciences, University of California, Irvine, USA
b
A R T I C L E I N F O
A B S T R A C T
Article history:
Received 24 April 2015
Received in revised form 29 October 2015
Accepted 1 November 2015
Available online xxx
The domain of the surface ocean and lower atmosphere is a complex, highly dynamic component of the
Earth system. Better understanding of the physics and biogeochemistry of the air–sea interface and the
processes that control the exchange of mass and energy across that boundary define the scope of the
Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS) project. The scientific questions driving SOLAS research,
as laid out in the SOLAS Science Plan and Implementation Strategy for the period 2004–2014, are highly
challenging, inherently multidisciplinary and broad. During that decade, SOLAS has significantly
advanced our knowledge. Discoveries related to the physics of exchange, global trace gas budgets and
atmospheric chemistry, the CLAW hypothesis (named after its authors, Charlson, Lovelock, Andreae and
Warren), and the influence of nutrients and ocean productivity on important biogeochemical cycles, have
substantially changed our views of how the Earth system works and revealed knowledge gaps in our
understanding. As such SOLAS has been instrumental in contributing to the International Geosphere–
Biosphere Programme (IGBP) mission of identification and assessment of risks posed to society and
ecosystems by major changes in the Earth’s biological, chemical and physical cycles and processes during
the Anthropocene epoch. SOLAS is a bottom-up organization, whose scientific priorities evolve in
response to scientific developments and community needs, which has led to the launch of a new 10-year
phase. SOLAS (2015–2025) will focus on five core science themes that will provide a scientific basis for
understanding and projecting future environmental change and for developing tools to inform societal
decision-making.
ã 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND
license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Keywords:
Ocean
Atmosphere
Processes
Biogeochemistry
Flux
Climate
1. Introduction
* Corresponding author at: GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel,
Düsternbrooker Weg 20, 24105 Kiel, Germany. Fax: +49 4316004202.
E-mail addresses: [email protected], [email protected]
(E.H.G. Brévière).
In 1990, within the International Geosphere–Biosphere Programme (IGBP) framework for a study of global change (IGBP
report No. 12, 1990), the Global Ocean Euphotic Zone Study
(GOEZS) was designated as a ‘next generation’ project to build
upon the World Ocean Circulation Experiment (WOCE), the
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
2213-3054/ã 2015 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
2
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Tropical Ocean and Global Atmosphere program (TOGA) and the
Joint Global Ocean Flux Study (JGOFS). This new project would
integrate their findings and unanswered questions into an
interdisciplinary study of the coupled physical, biological, and
chemical processes operating in the euphotic zone. In 1993, GOEZS
was developing its scientific program as a possible core program of
IGBP and the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research (SCOR)
with the support of the World Climate Research Programme
(WCRP) (Denman, 1993). GOEZS was formulated as a ‘model
driven’ project, i.e., questions to be studied would be generated
from models. Unfortunately, robust predictive models did not exist
in the field at that time and so after ample discussions, experts in
the field decided that GOEZS would not be established.
Given the importance that IGBP and other organizations placed
on the environmental change occurring in the Anthropocene, and the
significant influence that ocean interactions have on global
environment and society, in 1997 a new project was considered
that would cover marine biogeochemistry and its interaction with
the atmosphere: the Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study
(SOLAS). It would address key interactions among the marine
biogeochemical system, the atmosphere and climate, and how this
system affects and is affected by past and future climate and
environmental changes. SOLAS was an outgrowth of GOEZS, but was
to be based on hypotheses; it would formulate and test hypotheses
about key interactions, quantify cause and effect in these interactions, and incorporate this new understanding into models.
Five important hypotheses were identified (Watson, 1997): (i)
marine sulfur emissions have a substantial effect on climate by
influencing cloud albedo; (ii) atmospherically derived iron stimulates phytoplankton growth in ‘high-nitrate-low-chlorophyll’
regions of the oceans; (iii) changing patterns of atmospheric nitrogen
deposition will significantly influence the marine biota in some parts
of the oceans; (iv) the influence of changes in marine biogeochemistry on ocean uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) in the
next century will be small and (v) the principal effect on marine
ecosystems in a warmer world will be a decrease in global
productivity, resulting from a slowing of the thermohaline circulation.
In 1999, SOLAS was still in the developmental stage and
actively seeking support from the International Global Atmospheric Chemistry (IGAC) and Joint Global Ocean Flux Study
(JGOFS) projects, to ensure that atmospheric and oceanic sciences
would be properly combined. In 2000, SOLAS moved into an
advanced stage of planning by holding an open science meeting in
Damp, Germany. Among the 250+ participants were physical,
chemical and biological oceanographers, atmospheric chemists
and physicists, paleo-oceanographers, remote sensing experts
and biogeochemical and climate modelers. The conference
provided a platform for these researchers to discuss interdisciplinary collaboration for the first time, to achieve a new scientific
understanding of ocean/atmosphere interactions and their
susceptibility to perturbation. Stimulating plenary presentations
and productive discussions led to the formulation of the overarching questions for SOLAS research and to a draft science plan,
which was revised based upon feedback from the community
(Wallace, 2000). The document was reviewed in 2003 and after
final revisions and approval by SCOR, IGBP, iCACGP (International
Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global Pollution),
and WCRP it was published in early 2004 (SOLAS, 2004). The
SOLAS project had an unusually large number of sponsoring
organizations by design, to reflect the highly interdisciplinary
nature of the project and bring the oceanographic and atmospheric communities together.
As detailed in the science plan and implementation strategy
(SOLAS, 2004), the objective of SOLAS is “to achieve quantitative
understanding of the key biogeochemical-physical interactions
and feedbacks between the ocean and the atmosphere, and of how
this coupled system affects and is affected by climate and
Fig. 1. Diagram to illustrate the domain of SOLAS, its interdisciplinary nature and the main operative processes.
Source: figure from SOLAS (2004).
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
environmental change”. The interdisciplinary nature and broad
domain of SOLAS are illustrated in Fig. 1.
The science plan promoted coupled ocean and atmosphere
studies in three focus areas: (i) biogeochemical interactions and
feedbacks between the ocean and atmosphere; (ii) exchange
processes at the air–sea interface and the role of transport and
transformation in the atmospheric and oceanic boundary layers
and (iii) air–sea flux of CO2 and other long-lived radiatively active
gases. As predicted in the science plan, new challenges arose in this
rapidly evolving field of research that required reassessment of the
SOLAS research aims. In 2008 the SOLAS Scientific Steering
Committee identified several unresolved issues of significance to
the global climate system that would benefit from additional
international coordination and networking: upwelling areas and
associated oxygen minimum zones, sea ice, marine aerosols,
atmospheric nutrient supply and ship emissions (Law et al., 2013).
With continued support from international scientists, the
SOLAS project has grown and now encompasses more than
2200 researchers in more than 75 countries. Over the last decade
SOLAS has held five open science conferences welcoming over
1250 scientists, six international summer schools training over
420 young scientists, published a textbook based upon the summer
school courses (Le Quéré and Saltzman, 2009), sent close to
100 SOLAS e-bulletins, published 15 newsletter issues (http://
www.solas-int.org/), had four large national funded programs
(Canada, United Kingdom, Germany, Japan) and hundreds of
funded SOLAS-related research projects, and orchestrated about
one hundred scientific workshops, all of which have underpinned
the collaborative community of SOLAS researchers. The International Project Office was hosted from 2003 to 2010 by the
University of East Anglia in Norwich, United Kingdom, and since
2010 by the GEOMAR Helmholtz Centre for Ocean Research Kiel in
Germany. In 2014, the first phase of SOLAS was completed and
marked by the open access publication of a synthesis book (Liss
and Johnson, 2014). There have been major advances in our
knowledge of ocean–atmosphere exchange processes in the last
3
decade. In the following section, some achievements in major
scientific areas are highlighted.
2. Selected major achievements
2.1. Air–sea fluxes
2.1.1. Physics of exchange
One of the goals of the SOLAS program was to reduce
uncertainties in air–sea gas exchange because of the importance
of this process in the global biogeochemical cycles of many climateactive compounds. Air–sea gas transfer is one of the most challenging
problems in environmental science, because of the wide range in
scales of mixing near the two-fluid air–sea boundary and the
biogeochemical complexity of the air–sea interface. A process-level
understanding is required in order to parameterize air–sea gas
exchange in a way that accurately captures its coupling to the
physical and biogeochemical state of the ocean–atmosphere system.
The SOLAS community carried out multi-investigator survey
cruises across the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, and process studies
in the equatorial Eastern Pacific, Southern Ocean, and North
Atlantic Oceans (Bell et al., 2013; Ho et al., 2011; Huebert et al.,
2010; Marandino et al., 2009; Miller et al., 2009; Yang et al., 2011,
2014). These experiments explored a wide range of conditions from
oligotrophic, low wind, stratified tropical waters, to highly mixed,
wind-forced, bloom-forming regions of the mid-high latitudes. The
cruises involved collaborations between oceanographers, atmospheric scientists, chemists, and physicists. A new generation of
chemical sensors was applied to air–sea exchange studies enabling
direct flux measurements of climate-active gases (Bariteau et al.,
2010; Blomquist et al., 2012; Coburn et al., 2014; Yang et al., 2013),
and an array of novel techniques were used to probe the structure,
stability, and dynamics of the ocean surface (Pascal et al., 2011;
Ward et al., 2014). The observations from these studies challenge
existing wind speed-based parameterizations used in the current
generation of global biogeochemical models.
Fig. 2. A comparison of different wind speed relationships of the waterside transfer velocity, kw. Measurements from eddy covariance techniques and from mass balance
techniques are presented. Measurements from eddy covariance techniques and from mass balance techniques are presented (Bell et al., 2013, 2015; Bender et al., 2011; Edson
et al., 2011; Goddijn-Murphy et al., 2013; Ho et al., 2012; Liss and Merlivat, 1986; Marandino et al., 2007, 2009; McGillis et al., 2001; Miller et al., 2009; Naegler, 2009;
Nightingale et al., 2000; Sweeney et al., 2007; Yang et al., 2011).
Source: figure developed from Johnson (2012); http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.92419, CC-BY licence.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
4
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
An increase in greenhouse gas emissions enhances global
atmospheric temperatures, which influence the Earth’s pressure
gradient and thus wind speed. In addition, 90% of the heat
accumulation is in the ocean (IPCC, 2014), causing changes to
ocean stratification and circulation. It is important to understand
how these changes in the physical forcing of gas exchange may
influence air–sea gas transfer in the future. The SOLAS studies
demonstrated the feasibility of direct measurement of air–sea gas
exchange on time-space scales comparable to the variability in the
physical forcings (wind, waves, biologically generated microlayers,
etc.). For the first time, air–sea gas fluxes were measured
simultaneously with the energy fluxes of sensible heat, latent
heat, and momentum. This capability is a step forward to
developing physically-based models and bulk parameterizations
that predict air–sea fluxes of energy and gases in a self-consistent
way (Fairall et al., 2011; Johnson, 2010; Soloviev, 2007) (Fig. 2).
Perhaps equally important, the SOLAS project (field studies,
summer schools, workshops, and open science conferences)
helped build a community of young scientists engaged in air–
sea exchange research with expertise crossing the traditional
boundaries of atmospheric and oceanic sciences.
2.1.2. Global fluxes: the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas
The global oceans constitute an important net sink for the
greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) (Takahashi et al., 2002). The
concept that the ocean is the largest sink for anthropogenic CO2,
but that the air–sea flux of CO2 may be changing, was one of the
five hypotheses driving SOLAS and one of the three foci of the
science plan and implementation strategy (SOLAS, 2004). Accurate
knowledge of the surface water CO2 distribution, in combination
with the air–sea gas transfer velocity (Fig. 2), enables quantification of the size of this important sink. Hence, systematic, highquality CO2 measurements, data reporting and data synthesis are
essential. To this end the international marine carbon research
community initiated the Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) in 2007
(IOCCP, 2007). SOCAT makes surface water CO2 data available
through regular releases of quality controlled and documented,
synthesis fCO2 (fugacity of CO2) products for the global ocean and
coastal seas (Bakker et al., 2012, 2014a; Pfeil et al., 2012; Sabine
et al., 2013). SOCAT version 1 was released in 2011, followed by
version 2 in 2013, and version 3 in 2015. The SOCAT data products
are available for download from www.socat.info, where they are
archived and can also be used interactively.
Version 3 contains 14.5 million surface water fCO2 values from
1968 to 2014 (Bakker et al., 2014a, in preparation). They originate
from seagoing fieldwork by scientists in 22 countries. The data
were collected on more than one hundred ships, moorings and
drifters. They are submitted to the database by individual scientists
and quality control is then carried out by volunteer scientists prior
to release. The increase in data collection over the past four
decades is striking (Fig. 3). Installation of autonomous, infrared
CO2 instruments on ships has provided repeated fCO2 observations
along major shipping lines from the early 1990s onwards.
Nonetheless, the observations are sparse for much of the world's
oceans.
Numerous peer-reviewed, scientific publications and highprofile reports cite SOCAT (www.socat.info). Applications of SOCAT
include: quantification of the ocean carbon sink and its variation
Fig. 3. Surface water fCO2 values in 1968 to 1979, the 1980s, 1990s and 2000s in the global ocean and coastal seas for SOCAT version 2. Pfeil et al. (2012) present a similar figure
for version 1.
Source: figure prepared with the Cruise Data Viewer at www.socat.info.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
(e.g., Le Quéré et al., 2014); provision of constraints for
atmospheric inverse models used for estimating the land carbon
sink; validation of ocean carbon models; studies of ocean
acidification, ocean carbon cycling and genomics. Sustained,
long-term surface ocean CO2 observations and their synthesis
are critical for early detection of any changes in atmospheric
carbon fluxes.
Revised quality control criteria will enable inclusion of wellcalibrated CO2 measurements by alternative sensors and on
alternative platforms from version 3 onwards (Wanninkhof et al.,
2013). For its version 4, SOCAT will accept, archive and make public
additional parameters accompanying surface water CO2 data, such as
nutrients (SOCAT, 2014). SOCAT will not quality control the
additional parameters, but would welcome other synthesis activities
to do so. An automated data upload is available and allows
preliminary quality control during data submission. As a consequence, it should enable a more rapid release of SOCAT data products.
2.1.3. Distribution and fluxes of nitrous oxide and halocarbons
Both nitrous oxide (N2O) and halocarbons have received much
attention within the SOLAS community; they are featured in two of
the three foci of the SOLAS science plan and implementation
strategy (SOLAS, 2004). N2O is an atmospheric trace gas that plays
an important role in both atmospheric chemistry and Earth’s
climate. The ocean is a major natural source of atmospheric N2O
(IPCC, 2014), but global oceanic emission estimates are still
associated with a high degree of uncertainty. This is partly caused
by the fact that there was no database which could provide global
oceanic N2O data sets. To this end, MEMENTO (the MarinE
MethanE and NiTrous Oxide database; https://memento.geomar.
de/de) was initiated by the European CoOperation in Science and
Technology framework (COST) Action 735 and SOLAS (Bange et al.,
2009). COST Action 735 (2006–2011) aimed to develop tools for
assessing global air–sea fluxes of climate and air pollution relevant
gases. Since 2014, MEMENTO is closely working with the SCOR
working group 143 (https://portal.geomar.de/web/scor-wg-143).
Additionally, several new aspects of the oceanic biogeochemistry
and the air–sea exchange of N2O, as well as new analytical
methods, have emerged during the SOLAS period, leading to a
fundamental change in our understanding of oceanic N2O (Bakker
et al., 2014b): (i) the long-standing paradigm of a predominant
bacterial nitrification of N2O has been challenged by the fact that
N2O is mainly produced by nitrifying archaea (Löscher et al., 2012;
Santoro et al., 2011); (ii) a study in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean
points to an underestimated role of surfactants in suppressing air–
sea gas exchange of N2O in areas of high biological productivity
(Kock et al., 2012); (iii) a model study revealed that the effect of
atmospheric nitrogen deposition on oceanic N2O production is
small on a global scale but could be significant on a regional scale
(e.g., in the Arabian Sea) (Suntharalingam et al., 2012); (iv) the
development of laser-based spectrometers using the cavityringdown approach coupled to an equilibrator allows N2O
measurements in surface waters with an unprecedented high
temporal and spatial resolution (Arévalo-Martínez et al., 2013;
Grefe and Kaiser, 2014) and (v) the first measurements of N2O in
sea ice lead to a new appraisal of N2O ocean atmosphere fluxes
during ice formation and decay (Randall et al., 2012). Future
projections of N2O production in the ocean and subsequent
emission to the atmosphere are related to enhancements of socalled oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). OMZs are thought to be
expanding due to anthropogenic activities and it has been
observed that the nitrogen cycle is perturbed therein, producing
large quantities of N2O as a byproduct (Arévalo-Martínez et al.,
2015). Therefore, N2O production in OMZs may have a positive
feedback on global change since it is also a powerful greenhouse
gas that alters climate. However, a recent model study showed that
5
the future overall oceanic N2O emissions might decrease mainly
because of an increasing storage capacity (i.e., reduced ventilation)
of N2O in the future ocean (Martinez-Rey et al., 2015). Therefore,
the future development of the oceanic N2O emissions is still under
debate.
Halogenated organic compounds from the ocean contribute to
the pool of reactive atmospheric halogens. They are involved in
ozone depletion in the troposphere and stratosphere and influence
aerosol formation. Interestingly, in the case of iodine, marine
boundary layer concentrations were thought to be prohibitively
low until a recent set of analytical advances have demonstrated
that atmospheric iodine chemistry is widespread (Liss and
Johnson, 2014 and references therein). Model and laboratory
studies now show that atmospheric iodine chemistry results in
new particle formation and shifts in the hydrogen oxide radicals
(HOx) ratio and nitrogen oxide radicals (NOx) ratios, which highly
influence the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere (Plane et al.,
2006; Saiz-Lopez et al., 2012). During SOLAS, the oceanic source
strengths and biogeochemical cycling of iodinated, brominated
and chlorinated halocarbons have been investigated. The sparse
database of halocarbons in ocean and atmosphere increased
considerably during cruises into various oceanic regions at all
latitudes during the last decade (e.g., Brinckmann et al., 2012;
Butler et al., 2007; Liu et al., 2011; O’Brien et al., 2009; Pyle et al.,
2011; Yokouchi et al., 2008). Much of these data has been compiled
in the Halocarbons in the Ocean and Atmosphere (HalOcAt)
database project (https://halocat.geomar.de/), which is still ongoing and currently consists of 200 data sets, comprising roughly
55,000 oceanic and 470,000 atmospheric data points of 19 different
short-lived halogenated compounds. The first comprehensive
global sea-to-air flux climatologies of the three important shortlived halogen carriers bromoform (CHBr3), dibromomethane
(CH2Br2) and methyl iodide (CH3I) have been derived using the
HalOcAt database (Ziska et al., 2013). The impact of these
emissions on stratospheric ozone depletion was found to be
highly dependent on the magnitude, location, and timing of their
emission, being particularly significant in the tropics, but
impacting the entire global atmosphere (Hossaini et al., 2013;
Liang et al., 2010; Ordóñez et al., 2012; Tegtmeier et al., 2012).
Novel process studies in the natural environment and modeling
have started to further unravel the pathways of abiotic and biotic
production and degradation mechanisms of the halocarbons in the
current and future ocean (Hense and Quack, 2009; Hopkins et al.,
2013; Hughes et al., 2013; Shi et al., 2014). The influence of
meteorological constraints on the air–sea exchange of halocarbons
has been investigated (Fuhlbrügge et al., 2013) and new tools
developed to determine their source distribution (Ashfold et al.,
2014). Recent reviews (Carpenter et al., 2012; Liss et al., 2014) call
for a quantification of the relative roles of, and interactions
between, the oceanic production and temporal variations of
physical forcings, in conjunction with anthropogenic influences as
oceanic halocarbon emissions will likely increase in the future
(Hepach et al., 2014).
2.2. Evolution of the CLAW hypothesis
In the 1980s, it was hypothesized that dimethylsulfide (DMS)derived sulfate made up the majority of cloud condensation nuclei
(CCN) in the remote marine boundary layer (MBL) (Charlson et al.,
1987; Shaw, 1983). Charlson et al. (1987) further hypothesized that
an increase in DMS emission from the ocean would result in an
increase in CCN, cloud droplet number concentration, and cloud
albedo, as well as a decrease in the amount of solar radiation
reaching Earth’s surface. The reduction in solar radiation would
then result in changes in the speciation and abundance of
phytoplankton that produce dimethylsulfoniopropionate (DMSP),
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
6
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
the precursor of DMS, thus setting up a climate feedback loop
between cloud albedo and surface ocean DMS concentration. This
proposed mechanism for biological regulation of climate became
known as the CLAW hypothesis, named after the four authors of
Charlson et al. (1987; Charlson, Lovelock, Andreae and Warren).
The climate feedback loop proposed by Charlson et al. requires
(1) that a change in the emission of DMS results in a significant
change in MBL CCN concentration, (2) a change in DMS-derived
CCN yields a change in cloud albedo, and (3) a change in cloud
albedo, surface temperature, and/or incident radiation leads to a
change in DMS production. The CLAW hypothesis spawned over
25 years of interdisciplinary research, with the biological
oceanography, atmospheric chemistry, and climate modeling
communities working together to assess the response to change
in each of these three steps.
The CLAW hypothesis was one of the main driving hypotheses
formulating the SOLAS mission. It outlines a clear biogeochemical
interaction and feedback between the ocean and atmosphere that
resides at the core of SOLAS research. During the SOLAS decade,
more than 500 DMS-related studies accomplished within the
broader SOLAS community have been published contributing more
than half of the data in the Global Surface Water DMS Database
(http://saga.pmel.noaa.gov/dms/). New insights into surface ocean
biological production pathways and cycling, such as hypotheses
explaining DMS(P) biogenic production (Stefels et al., 2007) and
the so-called summer paradox (Vallina et al., 2008) were made.
Technological advancements in direct measurement of open ocean
DMS fluxes have resulted from SOLAS initiatives (e.g., Huebert
et al., 2004; Marandino et al., 2007). The importance of chemical
compounds other than the hydroxyl radical, OH, in DMS oxidation
reactions (e.g., BrO) has also been identified (Breider et al., 2010;
Lawler et al., 2009). A major accomplishment by the combined
efforts of SOLAS and COST Action 735 has been to update the first
DMS climatology from Kettle et al. (1999), Kettle and Andreae
(2000). The subsequent climatology by Lana et al. (2011) gives a
more robust calculation of the seasonal, global DMS oceanic
concentrations and air–sea fluxes based on the enhanced database.
It has been and will continue to be used to better model the effects
of DMS emissions on atmospheric chemistry and climate
(Levasseur, 2013).
In the years since CLAW was first proposed, new SOLAS
observations have become available that complicate the three
steps in the simple feedback loop proposed. For example,
observations based on direct and indirect chemical techniques
have revealed that up to half of the particles in the CCN size range
contain sea salt (Campuzano-Jost et al., 2003; Murphy et al., 1998;
O’Dowd and Smith, 1993). In addition, measurements below
stratocumulus clouds over remote ocean regions have revealed
that the majority of residual particles from evaporated cloud
droplets – that is, particles that had acted as CCN – were sea salt
(Twohy and Anderson, 2008). These measurements, as well as
others carried out over the past several decades, show that sea salt
can make up a significant fraction of MBL CCN. In addition, the
importance of organic-containing particles as CCN has also been
revealed over the past decade. Breaking surface ocean waves result
in the entrainment of air bubbles that scavenge organic matter
from seawater as they rise to the surface. When injected to the
atmosphere, the bubbles burst and yield submicrometer sea spray
aerosol (Bates et al., 2012; Facchini et al., 2008; Keene et al., 2007;
O’Dowd et al., 2004; Quinn et al., 2014). These organic particles,
containing surface active gel- forming lipo-polysaccarides, are
debated in the literature concerning their hygroscopic and CCN
properties (Facchini et al., 2008; Leck and Bigg, 2008; Orellana
et al., 2011; Ovadnevaite et al., 2011; Prather et al., 2013; Quinn
et al., 2014; Russell et al., 2010). The large contribution of winddriven sea spray containing both sea salt and organics to the MBL
CCN population prevents a significant response in CCN concentration to changes in the emission of DMS.
Furthermore, observations of particle nucleation involving
sulfuric acid, a DMS oxidation product, in the free troposphere
Fig. 4. Sources and production mechanisms for CCN in the remote MBL. DMS contributes to the MBL CCN population primarily via particle formation in the free troposphere
in cloud outflow regions with subsequent subsidence. Sea salt and organics are emitted as a result of wind driven bubble bursting.
Source: figure adapted from Quinn and Bates (2011).
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
MBL. After formation in the free troposphere, the particles may be
transported thousands of kilometers before mixing down into the
MBL. As a result, regions of high DMS seawater-to-air fluxes may
not always correlate with regions of high DMS-derived CCN
concentrations.
Field and laboratory experiments combined with model
calculations performed over the past decades have shown that
sources of CCN to the MBL are more complex than was recognized
by the CLAW hypothesis. The concentration of CCN in the MBL is a
result of emissions of sea salt and organics in sea spray, sinking of
DMS- and continentally-derived particulates from the free
near cloud top height rather than in the MBL are numerous (e.g.,
Clarke et al., 1998). Gases, including DMS, and particles are mixed
from the MBL into clouds. Clouds scavenge the particles, but not
insoluble gases, so that the air detrained from the cloud contains
low aerosol surface area. In these cloud outflow regions, where
existing particle surface area is low, and water vapor concentrations and light levels are high, DMS can undergo gas to particle
conversion. Measurements and model calculations published since
the introduction of the CLAW hypothesis indicate that DMSderived sulfate contributes generally to the MBL CCN population
via particle nucleation in the free troposphere rather than in the
Fig. 5. Total atmospheric reactive nitrogen (Nr) deposition to the ocean in mg m
Source: figure adapted from Duce et al. (2008).
2
year
7
1
in 1860, 2000, and 2030. Both inorganic and organic forms of nitrogen are included.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
8
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
troposphere, and particle growth through coagulation, vapor
condensation, and cloud processing (Fig. 4). Although the CLAW
hypothesis in its original formulation has not stood the test of time,
it was a revolutionary paradigm in Earth system science and
charted the way for the interdisciplinary research now required to
fully understand the multiple sources and climate impacts of
remote MBL CCN (Quinn and Bates, 2011).
2.3. Nutrients and ocean productivity
2.3.1. Nitrogen deposition
Nitrogen limits primary production in large areas of the ocean.
Most marine organisms utilize oxidized and reduced inorganic and
organic forms of fixed or reactive nitrogen, Nr. The three open
ocean sources of external (not recycled) Nr are biological N2
fixation, riverine input, and atmospheric deposition. External
sources contribute a net oceanic input of Nr that support “new
production”. Changes in the relative importance of these external
sources influence global oceanic Nr, carbon sequestration, and
affect CO2 air–sea exchange.
In 2006, SOLAS and the International Nitrogen Initiative
convened a workshop on “Anthropogenic Nitrogen Impacts on
the Open Ocean” that evaluated anthropogenic atmospheric
nitrogen entering the ocean and its impact on marine biological
productivity and possible CO2 drawdown (Duce et al., 2008). They
found that a significant fraction of the global emissions of
atmospheric nitrogen species deposit on the ocean surface. While
most was inorganic nitrogen (nitrate and ammonium), 30% was
water-soluble organic nitrogen, which had not been considered
previously in global models (Ito et al., 2015; Kanakidou et al., 2012).
Duce et al. (2008) showed that in 2000 these increasing quantities
of atmospheric Nr entering the open ocean may have accounted for
1/3 of the ocean’s external nitrogen supply, and up to 3% of the
annual new marine biological production, representing a few
percent of the ocean's drawdown of CO2. Others SOLAS-related
studies (Krishnamurthy et al., 2009, 2010) demonstrated that
increasing nitrogen inputs alone increased small phytoplankton
and diatom production, leading to phosphorous and iron limitation
of diazotrophs and reducing nitrogen fixation.
Fig. 5 (top and middle) shows that there have been significant
changes in the spatial distribution of marine Nr deposition since
1860. By 2000 strong plumes of deposition extended far downwind
of many major urban areas. Estimates for 2030 (bottom) suggest Nr
oceanic deposition will be four times that in 2000 (Duce et al.,
2008). If so, atmospheric anthropogenic nitrogen contributions to
marine primary production could approach current estimates of
global marine N2 fixation. Increases in the surface nitrate
concentration in the northwest Pacific were recently documented,
indicating atmospheric transport of anthropogenic nitrogen from
Asia (Kim et al., 2014a). Studies have also shown that areas in the
northern Indian Ocean (Singh et al., 2012; Srinivas and Sarin, 2013),
the South China Sea, northwest Pacific (Jung et al., 2013; Kim et al.,
2011, 2014b; Uematsu et al., 2010) and the North Atlantic (Baker
et al., 2010; Lesworth et al., 2010) are now being impacted by
atmospheric nitrogen deposition.
Several studies provide new perspectives on this issue. Using a
multi-model approach to evaluate the mean nitrogen deposition to
continental and oceanic areas for the present, for 2030 and 2100,
Lamarque et al. (2013) suggested there will be decreasing
deposition of oxidized Nr later in this century, reflecting the
anticipated improvement in nitrogen oxide radicals emission
control, while ammonia deposition will continue to increase.
However, using nitrogen isotope data and marine versus continental back trajectory analysis, most ammonia deposition at
Bermuda was found to be marine derived, not anthropogenic
(Altieri et al., 2014). If this occurs in other marine regions, many of
the earlier estimates of anthropogenic input of reduced inorganic
nitrogen will have been too high. In addition, it appears that
deposition of Nr to low nutrient, low chlorophyll regions was
underestimated by models on daily to weekly timescales because
models typically overlook large synoptic variations in atmospheric
nutrient deposition (Guieu et al., 2014). There is clearly still much
work to be done to accurately assess the impact of anthropogenic
nitrogen deposition to the ocean.
2.3.2. Iron biogeochemistry and the Iron Addition Experiments
Over the last fifteen years, multi-faceted research into oceanic
iron, encompassing regional distributions, sources and sinks,
biological recycling, ‘paleo iron’, and stable isotopes, has evolved
into the integrative discipline of iron biogeochemistry (Boyd and
Ellwood, 2010). SOLAS scientists have been instrumental in
characterizing a wide range of aerosol particles, including desert
dust, pollutants, volcanic ash, and their modes of transport,
interaction, temporal and spatial signatures, and iron solubility
Fig. 6. The oceans biogeochemical iron (Fe) cycle and its ramifications for global climate. (A) Fe supply mechanisms from the atmosphere and ocean, and oceanic biological
recycling; (B) implications of deliberate iron fertilization for the natural Fe cycle; and (C) potential implications of deliberate iron fertilization for climate related processes.
Solid horizontal line denotes sunlit zone of surface mixing. The two blue downward arrows in (C) represent the known range of export efficiencies estimates from <10% (Boyd
et al., 2004) to 50% (Smetacek et al., 2012) from FeAXs. The downward pink triangles (panels B and C) represent particle attenuation due to biological remineralisation with
depth.
Source: figure designed by Hilarie Cutler/IGBP.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
(Baker and Croot, 2010; Landing and Paytan 2010; de Leeuw et al.,
2014), which led to the recent development of a SOLAS aerosol and
rainwater chemistry database (http://tinyurl.com/aerosol-rainwater) (Garçon et al., 2014). These studies have also largely resolved
the enigma of widely differing estimates of aerosol iron solubility
(Jickells and Spokes, 2001), and quantified the relative contribution of aerosols to oceanic iron supply and productivity (Boyd et al.,
2010), the influence of Asian dust on the global radiation budget
(Uno et al., 2009), and the stimulation of upper ocean carbon
export resulting from natural iron deposition following volcanic
eruptions (Achterberg et al., 2013; Hamme et al., 2010). These
advances in our understanding of atmospheric links with the ocean
iron cycle have improved modeling parameterizations and
estimates of atmospheric dust supply to the ocean iron biogeochemical cycle on past, present and future timescales (Mahowald
et al., 2009).
SOLAS field research campaigns examining iron biogeochemistry have ranged from repeat transects that have established the
spatial gradients and temporal trends in aerosol deposition (Baker
et al., 2006), to studies of upper ocean iron cycling. New insights
into iron biogeochemistry have been obtained from detailed
pelagic iron budgets; for example, the FeCycle quasi-lagrangian
study identified that microbes in High Nutrient Low Chlorophyll
(HNLC) waters obtain 90% of their iron requirement from recycling,
and consequently that iron is rapidly cycled over timescales of
hours (Boyd et al., 2005b). Further research has examined the role
of different ligands in maintaining iron availability in surface
waters (Hassler et al., 2011). However, iron is not only important in
HNLC waters, but is also a critical co-limiting nutrient of
productivity in other regions (Moore et al., 2013). These advances
in our understanding of iron biogeochemistry (see Fig. 6A) are
reflected in the increased representation of iron parameters
(stocks, rates and processes) in biogeochemical models (Tagliabue
et al., 2010).
Since the inception of SOLAS, the emerging technique of in-situ
manipulation experiments has evolved within a number of ocean
Iron Addition Experiments (FeAXs), including the multi-platform
Canadian-SOLAS SERIES experiment and the repeat Japanese
SEEDS FeAX. SERIES produced detailed models of biogenic gas
(DMS) production and the first carbon budget relating CO2
drawdown to iron-stimulated carbon export below the permanent
pycnocline (Boyd et al., 2004; Le Clainche et al., 2006; see Fig. 6C).
SEEDS showed striking differences in response between years at
the same location, largely due to interannual variability in initial
oceanic conditions and plankton seed stock composition (Tsuda
et al., 2007). Following the first FeAX intercomparison of
biogeochemical responses (de Baar et al., 2005), a SOLAS cosponsored workshop synthesized the findings from 12 FeAXs, and
compared the outcomes with those of naturally high iron regions
(KEOPS and CROZEX voyages; Blain et al., 2007; Pollard et al.,
2009), as well as dust input during episodic events and on glacial
timescales (Boyd et al., 2007). The FeAXs were successful in
establishing that iron availability controls primary productivity
and influences carbon export in HNLC regions (Boyd et al., 2004;
Smetacek et al., 2012), and the observational data from the FeAXs
were synthesized by the SCOR Working Group “The legacy of
mesoscale ocean enrichment experiments” (Boyd et al., 2012). An
unanticipated outcome of the FeAXs, arising from the stimulation
of phytoplankton growth by iron addition, was interest in
deploying iron addition at large-scales to mitigate CO2 emissions.
Subsequent analysis suggested that iron was less effective in
enhancing carbon export (Boyd and Browman, 2008; Boyd et al.,
2005a). SOLAS issued a position statement and subsequently
advised the Intergovernmental Oceanic Committee (IOC) on
amendment of the London Convention on Marine Dumping
(LC/LP, 2013) to incorporate regulation of iron addition to the
9
ocean. SOLAS has also produced a summary for policy makers for
IOC/UNESCO (Wallace et al., 2010), with an associated synthesis
paper examining the pros and cons of iron addition for CO2
mitigation (Williamson et al., 2012; see Fig. 6C). This issue of ocean
iron fertilization is one example of the SOLAS commitment to
robust scientific underpinning of policy and legislation, and the
socioeconomic relevance of ocean–atmosphere research.
3. SOLAS links with Earth system science and IGBP
For almost half a century, it has been established that planetary
cycles, such as the hydrological and carbon cycles, are closely
interlinked. In fact, life itself is an active and necessary player in
these planetary dynamics, as presented by Lovelock with the Gaia
hypothesis (Lovelock and Margulis, 1974). The sum of our planet’s
interacting physical, chemical, and biological processes represents
the ‘Earth system’, in which the ocean, atmosphere and land, as
well as the living and non-living parts therein, are all connected.
Twenty years ago, the understanding of how the Earth worked as a
system, how the components of the system were connected, or
even the importance of the individual components, were in their
infancy. Feedback mechanisms were more elusive than at present,
as were the dynamics controlling the coupled system (Steffen et al.,
2004). Earth system science is now at the core of IGBP, which is
structured around three major compartments (land, ocean and
atmosphere) (IGBP, 2006). Presented here are just some of many
findings from SOLAS science that have substantially changed our
views of how the Earth system works but revealed gaping holes in
our understanding. They hint at the importance of the ocean–
atmosphere interface in terms of buffering or accelerating changes
in the Earth system. More details of these and other advances are
available in the open access book ‘Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions
of Gases and Particles’ by Liss and Johnson (2014).
The IGBP vision is to provide scientific knowledge to improve
the sustainability of the living Earth (IGBP, 2006). To this end, in the
late 2000s, the novel concept of planetary boundaries emerged to
inform societal decisions about sustainability. Nine planetary
boundaries within which humanity can continue to develop and
thrive for generations to come have been identified and control
variables have been quantified. Crossing these boundaries could
generate abrupt or irreversible environmental changes; conversely, respecting the boundaries reduces the risks to human society of
crossing these thresholds (Rockström et al., 2009; Steffen et al.,
2015). The nine boundaries are climate change, biodiversity
integrity, biogeochemical flows (P and N cycles), stratospheric
ozone depletion, ocean acidification, freshwater use, land-system
use, introduction of novel entities and atmospheric aerosol
loading. Identification and quantification of the control variables
are often possible because of the effort by the international
community to understand the planet’s biogeochemical cycles and
how these cycles have changed throughout Earth’s history. In
Steffen et al. (2015), control variables from seven of the nine
boundaries have been quantified. SOLAS scientists have contributed to quantification of three of these boundaries: climate change,
biogeochemical flows and ocean acidification. Indeed, in the early
2000s, SOLAS and the project IMBER (Integrated Marine Biogeochemistry and Ecosystem Research), in collaboration with IOCCP
(International Ocean Carbon Coordination Project) brought together scientists with particular expertise to consider the specific
research topic of ocean acidification. To facilitate the collaboration
a working group was established, leading to the founding of the
Ocean Acidification International Coordination Centre (OA-ICC)
hosted by the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA). Steffen
et al. (2015), using important outcomes from SOLAS research, have
shown that in the domain of ocean acidification, humanity is still in
the safe operating space defined by the authors, but is in the zone
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
10
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
of uncertainty for climate change, and the high-risk zone for
biogeochemical flows. This information is crucial for developing
mitigation strategies and framing appropriate sustainability policy.
Furthermore, the control variables of two of the nine planetary
boundaries are not yet quantified due to a lack of understanding on
atmospheric aerosol loading and introduction of novel entities
(Steffen et al., 2015). In both these areas, ocean–atmosphere
interface processes play a key role and so future research in the
SOLAS realm will provide critical understanding of these two
boundaries.
4. Future directions and challenges
Advancements in SOLAS research are required to assess the
impact of anthropogenic activities on future climate and to inform
policy relevant to ocean–atmosphere interactions. This progress
can be achieved by a two-pronged approach of advances in science
and integrated studies that inform policy decisions. Rapid changes
in air–sea interactions are clearly occurring and it is critical that we
continue to observe and understand these changes and eventually
mitigate them. SOLAS science will continue to challenge our
understanding of the Earth system, with the project’s unique
ability to facilitate essential integrated ocean–atmosphere research across scientific disciplines and national boundaries.
SOLAS (2015–2025) will address five core science areas: (1)
greenhouse gases (GHG) and the oceans, (2) air–sea interface and
fluxes of mass and energy, (3) atmospheric deposition and ocean
biogeochemistry, (4) interconnections between aerosols, clouds,
and marine ecosystems and (5) ocean biogeochemical control on
atmospheric
chemistry
(http://www.solas-int.org/resources/
books.html). While framing each of the five areas, the community
has identified four requirements to achieve a step change in SOLAS
science. Future efforts should consist of coordinated, integrated
studies over large biogeographical regions and traditional disciplines, improvements in Earth system models, advances in
remote sensing capabilities and in instrumentation and technique
development, and access to remote platforms with continuous
measurement capabilities.
All initial results of the last decade point to the need for more
coordinated, large-scale, integrated studies. SOLAS is unique in
providing a platform for bringing oceanographers and atmospheric
scientists together, but in order to achieve more integrated studies,
scientists with different types of expertise need to be engaged,
such as modelers of large eddies, wave modelers, and biologists, for
developing new observational techniques. Simultaneous studies of
surface ocean plankton taxonomy/ecophysiology/bloom dynamics,
surface concentrations of aerosol precursors and aerosol characteristics are required to constrain and model the biological and
environmental drivers of biogenic aerosol emission. Time-series
studies and inter-regional studies should be fundamental tools, as
well as high quality measurements of the physical properties of the
surface ocean mixed layer and the atmospheric MBL, to decouple
the influence of ocean-derived aerosol on marine clouds from
physical effects. Finally, it is recognized that in the complex, nonlinear system of the surface ocean and lower atmosphere, the five
SOLAS themes interact and influence each other. Understanding
the processes involved, and generating projections, will not be
possible by studying these themes independently. The community
has identified a number of examples of regional oceanic systems
where integrated studies are particularly urgent (Law et al., 2013),
and need to be either initiated or expanded, including upwelling
systems, sea ice areas, and coastal regions.
More complete Earth system models are an obvious tool for
future SOLAS research. For climate projections on timescales of
several hundred years, coupled Earth system models have been
developed that include the most up to date knowledge on chemical
and biogeochemical processes, but assimilation of data into
biogeochemical ocean models is still in its infancy. With respect
to marine aerosols, modeling should particularly address the
variable stoichiometry of atmospheric nutrients and surface ocean
biota, with better representations of competitive interactions
between plankton groups, aerosols, and organic matter aggregation and export processes. Models of the biological and environmental drivers of biogenic aerosol emission as well as highresolution numerical models to integrate cloud microphysics into
small-scale process dynamics are urgently needed. Finally,
atmospheric field experiments and associated modeling studies
should be performed to understand the rates and pathways of
atmospheric cycling of reactive emissions and how they interact
with both the natural marine atmosphere and anthropogenic
pollutants in continentally influenced regions.
Advances in remote sensing capabilities, instrumentation, and
technique development will lead to greater process understanding
in the next decade of SOLAS. Satellite observations of oceanic
processes and atmospheric GHG concentrations have to be linked
to oceanic measurements in a more systematic way. Highresolution satellite observations of aerosols, winds and cloud
properties would help to improve process understanding and
develop parameterizations of marine-cloud interactions. Recently,
ground based instrumentation has been improved to make oceangoing measurements of fluxes of many trace gases feasible.
Measurements of the exchange of a variety of volatile gases will
help to identify and quantify transfer processes on different scales.
Also, the sea-surface microlayer, which directly couples biological
processes to atmosphere-ocean exchange, can now be probed
remotely. Together with recent advances and techniques for
research into small-scale interactions, this will undoubtedly lead
to significant progress in our knowledge. New approaches for
determining the emission flux of sea spray aerosols and secondary
aerosol precursors, especially at high wind speeds would help to
reduce uncertainties. Additionally, new techniques are needed for
counting and characterizing nascent ultra-small aerosols to better
assess the frequency and mechanisms of particle nucleation in the
marine boundary layer.
Continuous measurement capabilities, especially those on
remote platforms, are at the forefront of future SOLAS observational needs. Accurate, sustained observations and synthesis of
greenhouse gases will be important in the next decade, especially
with respect to the new technique of data-based surface ocean
mapping (e.g., for CO2, CH4, and N2O). Automated systems, such as
high-accuracy pH sensors and alkalinity sensors, should be
installed on profiling floats in order to monitor variablility in
ocean acidification and their impacts. A ‘Marine Atmospheric
network’ of coupled atmosphere-marine time-series sampling
sites in both hemispheres, building on existing time series stations
that monitor both atmosphere and ocean properties is also
necessary. This network should utilize not only ships, but also
buoys and island sites, and the temporal resolution of sampling at
each site should be sufficient to resolve variability in both
atmospheric deposition and ecosystem responses. These time
series sites should also become focal points for detailed and in
depth experiments and process studies. In addition, the impacts of
ship plumes should explicitly be considered by evaluating how
shipping traffic patterns are co-located with ocean–atmosphere
observing sites. The long-term observation of the link between
atmospheric material transport and marine biogeochemistry
would facilitate both communication between groups working
in different areas and development of universal parameterizations
for implementation in numerical models.
For the past decade, SOLAS has demonstrated its interest and
relevance to societal problems, for instance with respect to
geoengineering schemes linked to the ocean–atmosphere system.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Informed assessment of the feasibility, efficacy and potentially
unintended effects of these schemes under debate for climate
mitigation was derived from SOLAS science (e.g., Wallace et al.,
2010). SOLAS will continue to provide the fundamental and
essential knowledge to inform the geoengineering debate and
policy makers on the critical aspects related to the interconnected
ocean–atmosphere system. Furthermore, motivated by Future
Earth, a high priority for SOLAS scientists in the upcoming decade
will be to increase interaction with society and policy makers and
to engage with researchers from the social science domains in
order to expand the areas of SOLAS contribution beyond geoengineering. New approaches will be investigated to launch
projects meeting societal needs. Subjects addressed by SOLAS
will include and focus more on climate regulation, evaluation of
extreme weather events, cloud-aerosol interactions, carbon
dioxide sequestration, air quality assessments, waste sinks and
bioremediation, expansion of oceanic oxygen minimum zones,
transport and accumulation of pollutants, and the fate of oil spills
at the air–sea interface. SOLAS will assess the scope and structure
of marine ecosystem services and contribute to the best possible
use of nature-based solutions for sustainable development.
Over the past 10 years, SOLAS has made significant inroads
regarding critical controls on the Earth system at the air–sea
boundary. However, it is clear that this work has only scratched the
surface of what we need to understand for our time in the
Anthropocene. It cannot be ignored that there is a direct, two-way
interaction between mankind and the air–sea system, and that
both are undergoing unprecedented rates of change in the current
epoch. The SOLAS community will address this challenge and
continue the legacy of IGBP by studying more deeply the
interactions between ocean and atmosphere in the Earth system
science framework.
Acknowledgements
A large number of scientists should be thanked for the success
of the project, which has been very briefly summarised in this
manuscript. Thanks are due to all the past and present chairs and
members of the SOLAS Scientific Steering Committee, in particular
to Emmanuel Boss, Cristina Facchini, Maurice Levasseur and
Alfonso Saiz-Lopez for their reviews of the manuscript. Thanks are
also due to Steve Hankin, Alex Kozyr, Ansley Manke, Nicolas Metzl
and Benjamin Pfeil for their contribution to the paragraphs and
figures on SOCAT. As a community activity, SOCAT has many
fantastic, highly dedicated contributors, notably data providers,
data managers, global group members, regional group leads and
quality controllers (named as co-authors on Bakker et al., 2012,
2014a, 2015; Pfeil et al., 2012; Sabine et al., 2013). A large number of
academic institutions and funding agencies underpin SOCAT
financially.
The authors acknowledge the continued support provided to
the SOLAS project by the International Geosphere-Biosphere
Programme (IGBP), the Scientific Committee on Oceanic Research
(SCOR), the World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) and the
international Commission on Atmospheric Chemistry and Global
Pollution (iCACGP). The authors also would like to thank the main
financial supporters of the project, US National Science Foundation
(NSF), NERC, UEA, BMBF and GEOMAR. The authors thank Hilarie
Cutler and support from IGBP for production of Fig. 6, Katye Altieri
for the Fig. 5 and Katharina Bading of the SOLAS International
Project Office for assistance. And finally, the authors would like to
acknowledge the SOLAS community without whose enthusiasm
and drive the SOLAS project would not have been such a success.
We are looking forward to the next decade of research!
11
References
Achterberg, E.P., Moore, C.M., Henson, S.A., Steigenberger, S., Stohl, A., Eckhardt, S.,
Avendano, L.C., Cassidy, M., Hembury, D., Klar, J.K., Lucas, M.I., Macey, A.I.,
Marsay, C.M., Ryan-Keogh, T.J., 2013. Natural iron fertilization by the
Eyjafjallajökull volcanic eruption. Geophys. Res. Lett. 40, 921–926. doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1002/grl.50221.
Altieri, K.E., Hastings, M.G., Peters, A.J., Oleynik, S., Sigman, D.M., 2014. Isotopic
evidence for a marine ammonium source in rainwater at Bermuda. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles 28, 1066–1080. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
2014gb004809.
Arévalo-Martínez, D.L., Beyer, M., Krumbholz, M., Piller, I., Kock, A., Steinhoff, T.,
Körtzinger, A., Bange, H.W., 2013. A new method for continuous measurements
of oceanic and atmospheric N2O, CO and CO2: performance of off-axis
integrated cavity output spectroscopy (OA-ICOS) coupled to non-dispersive
infrared detection (NDIR). Ocean Sci. 9, 1071–1087. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/os-9-1071-2013.
Arévalo-Martínez, D.L., Kock, A., Löscher, C.R., Schmitz, R.A., Bange, H.W., 2015.
Evidence of massive nitrous oxide emissions from the tropical South Pacific
Ocean. Nat. Geosci. 8, 530–533. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2469.
Ashfold, M.J., Harris, N.R.P., Manning, A.J., Robinson, A.D., Warwick, N.J., Pyle, J.A.,
2014. Estimates of tropical bromoform emissions using an inversion method.
Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 979–994. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-9792014.
Baker, A.R., Croot, P.L., 2010. Atmospheric and marine controls on aerosol iron
solubility in seawater. Mar. Chem. 120, 4–13. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
marchem.2008.09.003.
Baker, A.R., Jickells, T.D., Biswas, K.F., Weston, K., French, M., 2006. Nutrients in
atmospheric aerosol particles along the Atlantic Meridional Transect. Deep. Res.
Part II 53, 1706–1719. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.dsr2.2006.05.012.
Baker, A.R., Lesworth, T., Adams, C., Jickells, T.D., Ganzeveld, L., 2010. Estimation of
atmospheric nutrient inputs to the Atlantic Ocean from 50 N to 50 S based on
large-scale field sampling: Fixed nitrogen and dry deposition of phosphorus.
Global Biogeochem. Cycles 24 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GB003634.
Bakker, D.C.E., Pfeil, B., Olsen, A., Sabine, C.L., Metzl, N., Hankin, S., Koyuk, H., Kozyr,
A., Malczyk, J., Manke, A., Telszewski, M., 2012. Global data products help assess
changes to ocean carbon sink. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys. Union 93, 125–126. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012eo120001.
Bakker, D.C.E., Pfeil, B., Smith, K., Hankin, S., Olsen, A., Alin, S.R., Cosca, C., Harasawa,
S., Kozyr, A., Nojiri, Y., O’Brien, K.M., Schuster, U., Telszewski, M., Tilbrook, B.,
Wada, C., Akl, J., Barbero, L., Bates, N.R., Boutin, J., Bozec, Y., Cai, W.-J., Castle, R.D.,
Chavez, F.P., Chen, L., Chierici, M., Currie, K., de Baar, H.J.W., Evans, W., Feely, R.A.,
Fransson, A., Gao, Z., Hales, B., Hardman-Mountford, N.J., Hoppema, M., Huang,
W.-J., Hunt, C.W., Huss, B., Ichikawa, T., Johannessen, T., Jones, E.M., Jones, S.D.,
Jutterström, S., Kitidis, V., Körtzinger, A., Landschützer, P., Lauvset, S.K., Lefèvre,
N., Manke, A.B., Mathis, J.T., Merlivat, L., Metzl, N., Murata, A., Newberger, T.,
Omar, A.M., Ono, T., Park, G.-H., Paterson, K., Pierrot, D., Ríos, A.F., Sabine, C.L.,
Saito, S., Salisbury, J., Sarma, V.V.S.S., Schlitzer, R., Sieger, R., Skjelvan, I.,
Steinhoff, T., Sullivan, K.F., Sun, H., Sutton, A.J., Suzuki, T., Sweeney, C., Takahashi,
T., Tjiputra, J., Tsurushima, N., van Heuven, S.M.A.C., Vandemark, D., Vlahos, P.,
Wallace, D.W.R., Wanninkhof, R., Watson, A.J., 2014a. An update to the Surface
Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT version 2). Earth Syst. Sci Data 6, 69–90. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.5194/essd-6-69-2014.
Bakker, D.C.E., Bange, H.W., Gruber, N., Johannessen, T., Upstill-Goddard, R.C.,
Borges, A.V., Delille, B., Löscher, C.R., Naqvi, S.W.A., Abdirahman, O.M., SantanaCasiano, J.M., 2014b. Air–sea interactions of natural long-lived greenhouse gases
(CO2, N2O, CH4) in a changing climate. In: Liss, P.S., Johnson, M.T. (Eds.), Ocean–
Atmosphere Interactions of Gases and Particles. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp.
113–169. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25643-1.
Bakker D.C.E., Pfeil B., Smith K., Harasawa S., Landa C., Nakaoka S., Nojiri Y., Metzl N.,
O’Brien K.M., Olsen A., Schuster U., Tilbrook B., Wanninkhof R., Alin S.R., Barbero
L., Bates N.R., Bianchi A.A., Bonou F., Boutin J., Bozec Y., Burger E., Cai W.-J., Castle
R.D., Chen L., Chierici M., Cosca C., Currie K., Evans W., Featherstone C., Feely R.A.,
Fransson A., Greenwood N., Gregor L., Hankin S., Hardman-Mountford N.J.,
Harlay J., Hauck J., Hoppema M., Humphreys M., Hunt C.W., Ibánhez J.S.P.,
Johannessen T., Jones S.D., Keeling R., Kitidis V., Körtzinger A., Kozyr A.,
€tzer P., Lauvset S.K., Lefèvre N., LoMonaco
Krasakopolou E., Kuwata A., Landschv
C., Manke A.B., Mathis J.T., Merlivat L., Monteiro P., Munro D., Murata A.,
Newberger T., Omar A.M., Ono T., Paterson K., Pierrot D., Robbins L.L., Sabine C.L.,
Saito S., Salisbury J., Schneider B., Schlitzer R., Sieger R., Skjelvan I., Steinhoff T.,
Sullivan K.F., Sutherland S.C., Sutton A.J., Sweeney C., Tadokoro K., Takahashi T.,
Telszewski M., Van Heuven S.M.A.C., Vandemark D., Wada C., Ward B., Watson A.
J., A 58-year record of high quality data in version 3 of the Surface Ocean CO2
Atlas (SOCAT), Earth Syst. Sci. Data, in preparation.
Bange, H.W., Bell, T.G., Cornejo, M., Freing, A., Uher, G., Upstill-Goddard, R.C., Zhang,
G., 2009. MEMENTO: a proposal to develop a database of marine nitrous oxide
and methane measurements. Environ. Chem. 6, 195–197. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1071/en09033.
Bariteau, L., Helmig, D., Fairall, C.W., Hare, J.E., Hueber, J., Lang, E.K., 2010.
Determination of oceanic ozone deposition by ship-borne eddy covariance flux
measurements. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 3, 441–455. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/
amt-3-441-2010.
Bates, T.S., Quinn, P.K., Frossard, A.A., Russell, L.M., Hakala, J., Petäjä, T., Kulmala, M.,
Covert, D.S., Cappa, C.D., Li, S.M., Hayden, K.L., Nuaaman, I., McLaren, R., Massoli,
P., Canagaratna, M.R., Onasch, T.B., Sueper, D., Worsnop, D.R., Keene, W.C., 2012.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
12
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Measurements of ocean derived aerosol off the coast of California. J. Geophys.
Res. Atmos. 117 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2012jd017588.
Bell, T.G., De Bruyn, W., Miller, S.D., Ward, B., Christensen, K., Saltzman, E.S., 2013.
Air–sea dimethylsulfide (DMS) gas transfer in the North Atlantic: evidence for
limited interfacial gas exchange at high wind speed. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13,
11073–11087. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-11073-2013.
Bell, T.G., De Bruyn, W., Marandino, C.A., Miller, S.D., Law, C.S., Smith, M.J., Saltzman,
E.S., 2015. Dimethylsulfide gas transfer coefficients from algal blooms in the
Southern Ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 15, 1783–1794. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-15-1783-2015.
Bender, M.L., Kinter, S., Cassar, N., Wanninkhof, R., 2011. Evaluating gas transfer
velocity parameterizations using upper ocean radon distributions. J. Geophys.
Res. 116 (C2), C02010. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009jc005805.
Blain, S., Quéguiner, B., Armand, L., Belviso, S., Bombled, B., Bopp, L., Bowie, A.,
Brunet, C., Brussaard, C., Carlotti, F., Christaki, U., Corbière, A., Durand, I.,
Ebersbach, F., Fuda, J.-L., Garcia, N., Gerringa, L., Griffiths, B., Guigue, C., Guillerm,
C., Jacquet, S., Jeandel, C., Laan, P., Lefèvre, D., Lo Monaco, C., Malits, A., Mosseri,
J., Obernosterer, I., Park, Y.-H., Picheral, M., Pondaven, P., Remenyi, T., Sandroni,
V., Sarthou, G., Savoye, N., Scouarnec, L., Souhaut, M., Thuiller, D., Timmermans,
K., Trull, T., Uitz, J., van Beek, P., Veldhuis, M., Vincent, D., Viollier, E., Vong, L.,
Wagener, T., 2007. Effect of natural iron fertilization on carbon sequestration in
the Southern Ocean. Nature 446, 1070–1074. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/
nature05700.
Blomquist, B.W., Fairall, C.W., Huebert, B.J., Wilson, S.T., 2012. Direct measurement
of the oceanic carbon monoxide flux by eddy correlation. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 5,
3069–3075. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/amt-5-3069-2012.
Boyd, P.W., Browman, H., 2008. Implications of large-scale iron fertilization of the
oceans. Introduction and synthesis. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 364, 213–218. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.3354/meps07541.
Boyd, P.W., Ellwood, M.J., 2010. The biogeochemical cycle of iron in the ocean. Nat.
Geosci. 3, 675–682. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo964.
Boyd, P.W., Law, C.S., Wong, C.S., Nojiri, Y., Tsuda, A., Levasseur, M., Takeda, S., Rivkin,
R., Harrison, P.J., Strzepek, R., Gower, J., McKay, M., Abraham, E., Arychuk, M.,
Barwell-Clarke, J., Crawford, W., Crawford, D., Hale, M., Harada, K., Johnson, K.,
Kiyosawa, H., Kudo, I., Marchetti, A., Miller, W., Needoba, J., Nishioka, J., Ogawa,
H., Page, J., Robert, M., Saito, H., Sastri, A., Sherry, N., Soutar, T., Sutherland, N.,
Taira, Y., Whitney, F., Wong, S.-K.E., Yoshimura, T., 2004. The decline and fate of
an iron-induced subarctic phytoplankton bloom. Nature 428, 549–553. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02437.
Boyd, P.W., Law, C.S., Hutchins, D.A., Abraham, E.R., Croot, P.L., Ellwood, M., Frew, R.
D., Hadfield, M., Hall, J., Handy, S., Hare, C., Higgins, J., Hill, P., Hunter, K.A.,
LeBlanc, K., Maldonado, M.T., McKay, R.M., Mioni, C., Oliver, M., Pickmere, S.,
Pinkerton, M., Safi, K., Sander, S., Sanudo-Wilhelmy, S.A., Smith, M., Strzepek, R.,
Tovar-Sanchez, A., Wilhelm, S.W., 2005a. FeCycle: attempting an iron
biogeochemical budget from a mesoscale SF6 tracer experiment in unperturbed
low iron waters. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 19 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2005GB002494.
Boyd, P.W., Strzepek, R., Takeda, S., Jackson, G., Wong, C.S., McKay, R.M., Law, C.,
Kiyosawa, H., Saito, H., Sherry, N., 2005b. The evolution and termination of an
iron-induced mesoscale bloom in the northeast subarctic Pacific. Limnol.
Oceanogr. 50, 1872–1886. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.4319/lo.2005.50.6.1872.
Boyd, P.W., Jickells, T., Law, C.S., Blain, S., Boyle, A.E., Buesseler, K.O., Coale, K.H.,
Cullen, J.J., de Baar, H.J.W., Follows, M., Harvey, M., Lancelot, C., Levasseur, M.,
Pollard, R., Rivkin, R.B., Sarmiento, J., Schoemann, V., Smetacek, V., Takeda, S.,
Tsuda, A., Turner, S., Watson, A.J., 2007. A synthesis of mesoscale ironenrichment experiments 1993–2005: key findings and implications for ocean
biogeochemistry. Science 315, 612–617. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/
science.1131669.
Boyd, P.W., Mackie, D.S., Hunter, K.A., 2010. Aerosol iron deposition to the surface
ocean—modes of iron supply and biological responses. Mar. Chem. 120, 128–
143. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2009.01.008.
Boyd, P.W., Bakker, D., Chandler, C., 2012. A new database to explore the findings
from large-scale ocean iron enrichment experiments. Oceanography 25, 64–71.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5670/oceanog.2012.104.
Breider, T.J., Chipperfield, M.P., Richards, N.A.D., Carslaw, K.S., Mann, G.W.,
Spracklen, D.V., 2010. Impact of BrO on dimethylsulfide in the remote marine
boundary layer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2009gl040868.
Brinckmann, S., Engel, A., Bönisch, H., Quack, B., Atlas, E., 2012. Short-lived
brominated hydrocarbons—observations in the source regions and the tropical
tropopause layer. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 1213–1228. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-12-1213-2012.
Butler, J.H., King, D.B., Lobert, J.M., Montzka, S.A., Yvon-Lewis, S.A., Hall, B.D.,
Warwick, N.J., Mondeel, D.J., Aydin, M., Elkins, J.W., 2007. Oceanic distributions
and emissions of short-lived halocarbons. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 21 doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006gb002732.
Campuzano-Jost, P., Clark, C.D., Maring, H., Covert, D.S., Howell, S., Kapustin, V.,
Clarke, K.A., Saltzman, E.S., Hynes, A.J., 2003. Near-real-time measurement of
sea-salt aerosol during the SEAS campaign: comparison of emission-based
sodium detection with an aerosol volatility technique. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol.
20, 1421–1430. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/1520-0426(2003)020<1421:
NMOSAD>2.0.CO;2.
Carpenter, L.J., Archer, S.D., Beale, R., 2012. Ocean–atmosphere trace gas exchange.
Chem. Soc. Rev. 41, 6473–6506. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/c2cs35121h.
Charlson, R.J., Lovelock, J.E., Andreae, M.O., Warren, S.G., 1987. Oceanic
phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate. Nature 326,
655–661. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/326655a0.
Clarke, A.D., Varner, J.L., Eisele, F., Mauldin, R.L., Tanner, D., Litchy, M., 1998. Particle
production in the remote marine atmosphere: cloud outflow and subsidence
during ACE. J. Geophys. Res. 1 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/97jd02987.
Coburn, S., Ortega, I., Thalman, R., Blomquist, B., Fairall, C.W., Volkamer, R., 2014.
Measurements of diurnal variations and eddy covariance (EC) fluxes of glyoxal
in the tropical marine boundary layer: description of the Fast LED-CE-DOAS
instrument. Atmos. Meas. Tech. 7, 3579–3595. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/
amt-7-3579-2014.
de Baar, H.J.W., Boyd, P.W., Coale, K.H., Landry, M.R., Tsuda, A., Assmy, P., Bakker, D.C.
E., Bozec, Y., Barber, R.T., Brzezinski, M.A., Buesseler, K.O., Boyé, M., Croot, P.L.,
Gervais, F., Gorbunov, M.Y., Harrison, P.J., Hiscock, W.T., Laan, P., Lancelot, C., Law,
C.S., Levasseur, M., Marchetti, A., Millero, F.J., Nishioka, J., Nojiri, Y., van Oijen, T.,
Riebesell, U., Rijkenberg, M.J.A., Saito, H., Takeda, S., Timmermans, K.R.,
Veldhuis, M.J.W., Waite, A.M., Wong, C.S., 2005. Synthesis of iron fertilization
experiments: from the iron age in the age of enlightenment. J. Geophys. Res. C
110, 1–24. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004JC002601.
de Leeuw, G., Guieu, C., Arneth, A., Bellouin, N., Bopp, L., Boyd, P.W., Denier van der
Gon, H.A.C., Desboeufs, K.V., Dulac, F., Facchini, M.C., Gantt, B., Langmann, B.,
Mahowald, N.M., Marañón, E., O’Dowd, C., Olgun, N., Pulido-Villena, E., Rinaldi,
M., Stephanou, E.G., Wagener, T., 2014. Ocean–atmosphere interactions of
particles. In: Liss, P.S., Johnson, M.T. (Eds.), Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions of
Gases and Particles. Springer Earth System Sciences, Heidelberg, pp. 171–246.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-25643-1_4.
Denman, K., 1993. Euphotic Zone Study moves forward. Eos Trans. Am. Geophys.
Union 74, 134. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/93eo00261.
Duce, R.A., LaRoche, J., Altieri, K., Arrigo, K.R., Baker, A.R., Capone, D.G., Cornell, S.,
Dentener, F., Galloway, J., Ganeshram, R.S., Geider, R.J., Jickells, T., Kuypers, M.M.,
Langlois, R., Liss, P.S., Liu, S.M., Middelburg, J.J., Moore, C.M., Nickovic, S.,
Oschlies, A., Pedersen, T., Prospero, J., Schlitzer, R., Seitzinger, S., Sorensen, L.L.,
Uematsu, M., Ulloa, O., Voss, M., Ward, B., Zamora, L., 2008. Impacts of
atmospheric anthropogenic nitrogen on the open ocean. Science 320, 893–897.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1150369.
Edson, J., Fairall, C., Bariteau, L., Helmig, D., Zappa, C., Cifuentes-Lorenzen, A.,
McGillis, W., Pezoa, S., Hare, J., 2011. Direct covariance measurement of CO2 gas
transfer velocity during the 2008 Southern Ocean Gas Exchange Experiment:
wind speed dependency. J. Geophys. Res. 116 (C4) doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1029/2011JC007022.
Facchini, M.C., Rinaldi, M., Decesari, S., Carbone, C., Finessi, E., Mircea, M., Fuzzi, S.,
Ceburnis, D., Flanagan, R., Nilsson, E.D., de Leeuw, G., Martino, M., Woeltjen, J.,
O’Dowd, C.D., 2008. Primary submicron marine aerosol dominated by insoluble
organic colloids and aggregates. Geophys. Res. Lett. 35, L17814. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1029/2008GL034210.
Fairall, C.W., Yang, M., Bariteau, L., Edson, J.B., Helmig, D., McGillis, W., Pezoa, S.,
Hare, J.E., Huebert, B., Blomquist, B., 2011. Implementation of the coupled
ocean–atmosphere response experiment flux algorithm with CO2, dimethyl
sulfide, and O3. J. Geophys. Res. 11, 6. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2010JC006884.
Fuhlbrügge, S., Krüger, K., Quack, B., Atlas, E., Hepach, H., Ziska, F., 2013. Impact of
the marine atmospheric boundary layer conditions on VSLS abundances in the
eastern tropical and subtropical North Atlantic Ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13,
6345–6357. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-6345-2013.
Garçon, V.C., Bell, T.G., Wallace, D., Arnold, S.R., Baker, A., Bakker, D.C.E., Bange, H.W.,
Bates, N.R., Bopp, L., Boutin, J., Boyd, P.W., Bracher, A., Burrows, J.P., Carpenter, L.
J., de Leeuw, G., Fennel, K., Font, J., Friedrich, T., Garbe, C.S., Gruber, N., Jaeglé, L.,
Lana, A., Lee, J.D., Liss, P.S., Miller, L.A., Olgun, N., Olsen, A., Pfeil, B., Quack, B.,
Read, K.A., Reul, N., Rödenbeck, C., Rohekar, S.S., Saiz-Lopez, A., Saltzman, E.S.,
Schneisig, O., Schuster, U., Seferian, R., Steinhoff, T., Le Traon, P.-Y., Ziska, F., 2014.
Perspectives and integration in SOLAS science. In: Liss, P.S., Johnson, M.T. (Eds.),
Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions of Gases and Particles. Springer Earth System
Sciences, Heidelberg, pp. 247–306. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-64225643-1.
Grefe, I., Kaiser, J., 2014. Equilibrator-based measurements of dissolved nitrous
oxide in the surface ocean using an integrated cavity output laser absorption
spectrometer. Ocean Sci. 10, 501–512. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-10-5012014.
Goddijn-Murphy, L., Woolf, D.K., Chapron, B., Queffeulou, P., 2013. Improvements to
estimating the air–sea gas transfer velocity by using dual-frequency, altimeter
backscatter. Remote Sens. Environ. 139, 1–5. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
rse.2013.07.026.
Guieu, C., Aumont, O., Paytan, A., Bopp, L., Law, C.S., Mahowald, N., Achterberg, E.P.,
Marañón, E., Salihoglu, B., Crise, A., Wagener, T., Herut, B., Desboeufs, K.,
Kanakidou, M., Olgun, N., Peters, F., Pulido-Villena, E., Tovar-Sanchez, A., Völker,
C., 2014. The significance of the episodic nature of atmospheric deposition to
low nutrient low chlorophyll regions. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 28, 1179–1198.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014gb004852.
Hamme, R.C., Webley, P.W., Crawford, W.R., Whitney, F.A., Degrandpre, M.D.,
Emerson, S.R., Eriksen, C.C., Giesbrecht, K.E., Gower, J.F.R., Kavanaugh, M.T., Pea,
M.A., Sabine, C.L., Batten, S.D., Coogan, L.A., Grundle, D.S., Lockwood, D., 2010.
Volcanic ash fuels anomalous plankton bloom in subarctic northeast Pacific.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010gl044629.
Hassler, C.S., Schoemann, V., Nichols, C.M., Butler, E.C., Boyd, P.W., 2011. Saccharides
enhance iron bioavailability to Southern Ocean phytoplankton. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U. S. A. 108, 1076–1081. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1010963108.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Hense, I., Quack, B., 2009. Modelling the vertical distribution of bromoform in the
upper water column of the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Biogeosci. Discuss. 6, 535–
544. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bgd-5-4919-2008.
Hepach, H., Quack, B., Ziska, F., Fuhlbrügge, S., Atlas, E.L., Krüger, K., Peeken, I.,
Wallace, D.W.R., 2014. Drivers of diel and regional variations of halocarbon
emissions from the tropical North East Atlantic. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 14, 1255–
1275. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-14-1255-2014.
Ho, D.T., Wanninkhof, R., Schlosser, P., Ullman, D.S., Hebert, D., Sullivan, K.F., 2011.
Toward a universal relationship between wind speed and gas exchange: gas
transfer velocities measured with 3He/SF6 during the Southern Ocean Gas
Exchange Experiment. J. Geophys. Res. 11, 6. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2010JC006854.
Hopkins, F.E., Kimmance, S., Stephens, J., Bellerby, R.G.J., Brussaard, C.P.D., Czerny, J.,
Schulz, K.G., Archer, S.D., 2013. Response of halocarbons to ocean acidification in
the Arctic. Biogeosciences 10, 2331–2345. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-102331-2013.
Hossaini, R., Mantle, H., Chipperfield, M.P., Montzka, S.A., Hamer, P., Ziska, F., Quack,
B., Krüger, K., Tegtmeier, S., Atlas, E., Sala, S., Engel, A., Bönisch, H., Keber, T.,
Oram, D., Mills, G., Ordóñez, C., Saiz-Lopez, A., Warwick, N., Liang, Q., Feng, W.,
Moore, F., Miller, B.R., Marécal, V., Richards, N.A.D., Dorf, M., Pfeilsticker, K., 2013.
Evaluating global emission inventories of biogenic bromocarbons. Atmos.
Chem. Phys. 13, 11819–11838. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-11819-2013.
Huebert, B.J., Blomquist, B.W., Hare, J.E., Fairall, C.W., Johnson, J.E., Bates, T.S., 2004.
Measurement of the sea–air DMS flux and transfer velocity using eddy
correlation. Geophys. Res. Lett. 31 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2004gl021567.
Huebert, B.J., Blomquist, B.W., Yang, M.X., Archer, S.D., Nightingale, P.D., Yelland, M.
J., Stephens, J., Pascal, R.W., Moat, B.I., 2010. Linearity of DMS transfer coefficient
with both friction velocity and wind speed in the moderate wind speed range.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 37 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009gl041203.
Hughes, C., Johnson, M., Utting, R., Turner, S., Malin, G., Clarke, A., Liss, P.S., 2013.
Microbial control of bromocarbon concentrations in coastal waters of the
western Antarctic Peninsula. Mar. Chem. 151, 35–46. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.marchem.2013.01.007.
IGBP, 1990. Global Ocean Euphotic Zone Study (GOEZS). A Potential Core Project. The
International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme: A Study of Global Change
(IGBP). The Initial Core Projects., IGBP Report No. 12, Stockholm, pp. 330.
IGBP, 2006. Science Plan and Implementation Strategy. IGBP Report No. 55. IGBP
Secretariat, Stockholm, pp. 76.
IOCCP, 2007. Surface ocean CO2 variability and vulnerabilities workshop. IOCCP
Report No. 7, Paris, France.
IPCC, 2014. Climate change 2014: synthesis report. In: Core Writing Team, Pachauri,
R.K., Meyer, L.A. (Eds.), Contribution of Working Groups I, II and III to the Fifth
Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. IPCC,
Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 151.
Ito, A., Lin, G., Penner, J.E., 2015. Global modeling study of soluble organic nitrogen
from open biomass burning. Atmos. Environ. 121 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.atmosenv.2015.01.031.
Jickells, T.D., Spokes, L.J., 2001. Atmospheric iron inputs to the oceans. In: Turner, D.R.,
Hunter, K.A. (Eds.), The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater. Wiley, pp. 85–121.
Johnson, M.T., 2010. A numerical scheme to calculate temperature and salinity
dependent air–water transfer velocities for any gas. Ocean Sci. 6, 913–932. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/os-6-913-2010.
Johnson, M.T., 2012. Three figures summarising field data on ocean–atmosphere gas
transfer velocity, http://dx.doi.org/10.6084/m9.figshare.92419.
Jung, J., Furutani, H., Uematsu, M., Kim, S., Yoon, S., 2013. Atmospheric inorganic
nitrogen input via dry, wet, and sea fog deposition to the subarctic western
North Pacific Ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 411–428. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-13-411-2013.
Kanakidou, M., Duce, R.A., Prospero, J.M., Baker, A.R., Benitez-Nelson, C., Dentener, F.
J., Hunter, K.A., Liss, P.S., Mahowald, N., Okin, G.S., Sarin, M., Tsigaridis, K.,
Uematsu, M., Zamora, L.M., Zhu, T., 2012. Atmospheric fluxes of organic N and P
to the global ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 26 doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1029/2011gb004277.
Keene, W.C., Maring, H., Maben, J.R., Kieber, D.J., Pszenny, A.A.P., Dahl, E.E., Izaguirre,
M.A., Davis, A.J., Long, M.S., Zhou, X., Smoydzin, L., Sander, R., 2007. Chemical
and physical characteristics of nascent aerosols produced by bursting bubbles at
a model air–sea interface. J. Geophys. Res. Atmos. 112 (D21), 202. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1029/2007jd008464.
Kettle, A.J., Andreae, M.O., 2000. Flux of dimethylsulfide from the oceans: a
comparison of updated data sets and flux models. J. Geophys. Res. 105, 26793–
26808. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000jd900252.
Kettle, A.J., Andreae, M.O., Amouroux, D., Andreae, T.W., Bates, T.S., Berresheim, H.,
Bingemer, H., Boniforti, R., Curran, M.A.J., DiTullio, G.R., Helas, G., Jones, G.B.,
Keller, M.D., Kiene, R.P., Leck, C., Levasseur, M., Malin, G., Maspero, M., Matrai, P.,
McTaggart, A.R., Mihalopoulos, N., Nguyen, B.C., Novo, A., Putaud, J.P.,
Rapsomanikis, S., Roberts, G., Schebeske, G., Sharma, S., Simó, R., Staubes, R.,
Turner, S., Uher, G., 1999. A global database of sea surface dimethylsulfide (DMS)
measurements and a procedure to predict sea surface DMS as a function of
latitude, longitude, and month. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 13, 399–444. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/1999gb900004.
Kim, T.-W., Lee, K., Najjar, R.G., Jeong, H.-D., Jeong, H.J., 2011. Increasing N abundance
in the Northwestern Pacific Ocean due to atmospheric nitrogen deposition.
Science 28 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1206583.
Kim, I.-L., Lee, K., Gruber, N., Karl, D.M., Bullister, J.L., Yang, S., Kim, T.-W., 2014a.
Increasing anthropogenic nitrogen in the North Pacific Ocean. Science 346,
1102–1106. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1258396.
13
Kim, T.-W., Lee, K., Duce, R., Liss, P., 2014b. Impact of atmospheric nitrogen
deposition on phytoplankton productivity in the South China Sea. Geophys. Res.
Lett. 41, 3156–3162. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2014GL059665.
Kock, A., Schafstall, J., Dengler, M., Brandt, P., Bange, H.W., 2012. Sea-to-air and
diapycnal nitrous oxide fluxes in the eastern tropical North Atlantic Ocean.
Biogeosciences 9, 957–964. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-957-2012.
Krishnamurthy, A., Moore, J.K., Mahowald, N., Luo, C., Doney, S.C., Lindsay, K.,
Zender, C.S., 2009. Impacts of increasing anthropogenic soluble iron and
nitrogen deposition on ocean biogeochemistry. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 23,
n/a–n/a. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008gb003440.
Krishnamurthy, A., Moore, J.K., Mahowald, N., Luo, C., Zender, C.S., 2010. Impacts of
atmospheric nutrient inputs on marine biogeochemistry. J. Geophys. Res. 115
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009jg001115.
Lamarque, J.F., Dentener, F., McConnell, J., Ro, C.U., Shaw, M., Vet, R., Bergmann, D.,
Cameron-Smith, P., Dalsoren, S., Doherty, R., Faluvegi, G., Ghan, S.J., Josse, B., Lee,
Y.H., Mackenzie, I.A., Plummer, D., Shindell, D.T., Skeie, R.B., Stevenson, D.S.,
Strode, S., Zeng, G., Curran, M., Dahl-Jensen, D., Das, S., Fritzsche, D., Nolan, M.,
2013. Multi-model mean nitrogen and sulfur deposition from the atmospheric
chemistry and climate model intercomparison project (ACCMIP): evaluation of
historical and projected future changes. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 7997–8018. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-13-7997-2013.
Lana, A., Bell, T.G., Simó, R., Vallina, S.M., Ballabrera-Poy, J., Kettle, A.J., Dachs, J.,
Bopp, L., Saltzman, E.S., Stefels, J., Johnson, J.E., Liss, P.S., 2011. An updated
climatology of surface dimethlysulfide concentrations and emission fluxes in
the global ocean. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 25 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2010gb003850.
Landing, W.M., Paytan, A., 2010. Marine chemistry special issue: aerosol chemistry
and impacts on the ocean. Mar. Chem. 120, 1–3. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
marchem.2010.04.001.
Law, C.S., Brévière, E., de Leeuw, G., Garçon, V., Guieu, C., Kieber, D.J., Kontradowitz,
S., Paulmier, A., Quinn, P.K., Saltzman, E.S., Stefels, J., von Glasow, R., 2013.
Evolving research directions in Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere (SOLAS)
science. Environ. Chem. 10, 1–16. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1071/EN12159.
Lawler, M.J., Finley, B.D., Keene, W.C., Pszenny, A.A.P., Read, K.A., von Glasow, R.,
Saltzman, E.S., 2009. Pollution-enhanced reactive chlorine chemistry in the
eastern tropical Atlantic boundary layer. Geophys. Res. Lett. 3, 6. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1029/2008GL036666.
LC/LP, 2013. Regulation of Ocean Fertilization and other activities. Report of the
Working Group on the Proposed Amendment to the London Protocol to
Regulate Placement of Matter for Ocean Fertilization and Other Marine
Geoengineering Activities. LC 35/WP.3.
Le Clainche, Y., Levasseur, M., Vézina, A., Bouillon, R.-C., Merzouk, A., Michaud, S.,
Scarratt, M., Wong, C.S., Rivkin, R.B., Boyd, P.W., Harrison, P.J., Miller, W.L., Law, C.
S., Saucier, F.J., 2006. Modeling analysis of the effect of iron enrichment on
dimethyl sulfide dynamics in the NE Pacific (SERIES experiment). J. Geophys.
Res. 111 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2005jc002947.
Le Quéré, C., Peters, G.P., Andres, R.J., Andrew, R.M., Boden, T.A., Ciais, P.,
Friedlingstein, P., Houghton, R.A., Marland, G., Moriarty, R., Sitch, S., Tans, P.,
Arneth, A., Arvanitis, A., Bakker, D.C.E., Bopp, L., Canadell, J.G., Chini, L.P., Doney,
S.C., Harper, A., Harris, I., House, J.I., Jain, A.K., Jones, S.D., Kato, E., Keeling, R.F.,
Klein Goldewijk, K., Körtzinger, A., Koven, C., Lefèvre, N., Maignan, F., Omar, A.,
Ono, T., Park, G.H., Pfeil, B., Poulter, B., Raupach, M.R., Regnier, P., Rödenbeck, C.,
Saito, S., Schwinger, J., Segschneider, J., Stocker, B.D., Takahashi, T., Tilbrook, B.,
Van Heuven, S., Viovy, N., Wanninkhof, R., Wiltshire, A., Zaehle, S., 2014. Global
carbon budget. Earth Syst. Sci. Data 6, 235–263. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/
essd-6-235-2014.
Le Quéré, C., Saltzman, E.S. (Eds.), 2009. Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere
Processes, Geophysical Monograph Series. American Geophysical Union
Washington, D.C. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/gm187.
Leck, C., Bigg, E.K., 2008. Comparison of sources and nature of the tropical aerosol
with the summer high Arctic aerosol. Tellus Ser. B 60B, 118–126. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0889.2007.00315.x.
Lesworth, T., Baker, A.R., Jickells, T., 2010. Aerosol organic nitrogen over the remote
Atlantic Ocean. Atmos. Environ. 44, 1887–1893. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
atmosenv.2010.02.021.
Levasseur, M., 2013. Impact of Arctic meltdown on the microbial cycling of sulphur.
Nat. Geosci. 6, 691–700. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1910.
Liang, Q., Stolarski, R.S., Kawa, S.R., Nielsen, J.E., Douglass, A.R., Rodriguez, J.M.,
Blake, D.R., Atlas, E.L., Ott, L.E., 2010. Finding the missing stratospheric bry: a
global modeling study of CHBr3 and CH2Br2. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss. 10,
2269–2286. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-10-2269-2010.
Liss, P.S., Johnson, M.T. (Eds.), 2014. Ocean Atmosphere Interactions of Gases and
Particles. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 315. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
978-3-642-25643-1.
Liss, P.S., Merlivat, L., 1986. Air-sea gas exchange rates: introduction and synthesis.
In: Buat-Menard, P. (Ed.), The Role of Air–Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling.
Reidel, Boston, pp. 113–129.
Liss, P.S., Marandino, C.A., Dahl, E.E., Helmig, D., Hintsa, E.J., Hughes, C., Johnson, M.
T., Moore, R.M., Plane, J.M.C., Quack, B., Singh, H.B., Stefels, J., von Glasow, R.,
Williams, J., 2014. Short-lived trace gases in the surface ocean and the
atmosphere. In: Liss, P.S., Johnson, M.T. (Eds.), Ocean–Atmosphere Interactions
of Gases and Particles. Springer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 1–54. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1007/978-3-642-25643-1.
Liu, Y., Yvon-Lewis, S.A., Hu, L., Salisbury, J.E., O’Hern, J.E., 2011. CHBr3, CH2Br2, and
CHClBr2 in U.S. coastal waters during the Gulf of Mexico and East Coast Carbon
cruise. J. Geophys. Res. 116 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010JC006729.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
14
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
Löscher, C.R., Kock, A., Könneke, M., LaRoche, J., Bange, H.W., Schmitz, R.A., 2012.
Production of oceanic nitrous oxide by ammonia-oxidizing archaea.
Biogeosciences 9, 2419–2429. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-9-2419-2012.
Lovelock, J., Margulis, L., 1974. Atmospheric homeostasis by and for the biosphere:
the gaia hypothesis. Tellus 26, 10.
Mahowald, N.M., Engelstaedter, S., Luo, C., Sealy, A., Artaxo, P., Benitez-Nelson, C.,
Bonnet, S., Chen, Y., Chuang, P.Y., Cohen, D.D., Dulac, F., Herut, B., Johansen, A.M.,
Kubilay, N., Losno, R., Maenhaut, W., Paytan, A., Prospero, J.M., Shank, L.M.,
Siefert, R.L., 2009. Atmospheric iron deposition: global distribution, variability,
and human perturbations. Ann. Rev. Mar. Sci. 1, 245–278. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1146/annurev.marine.010908.163727.
Marandino, C.A., De Bruyn, W.J., Miller, S.D., Saltzman, E.S., 2007. Eddy correlation
measurements of the air/sea flux of dimethylsulfide over the North Pacific
Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. 112 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2006jd007293.
Marandino, C.A., De Bruyn, W.J., Miller, S.D., Saltzman, E.S., 2009. Open ocean DMS
air/sea fluxes over the eastern South Pacific Ocean. Atmos. Chem. Phys. Discuss.
9, 345–356. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acpd-8-12081-2008.
Martinez-Rey, J., Bopp, L., Gehlen, M., Tagliabue, A., Gruber, N., 2015. Projections of
oceanic N2O emissions in the 21st century using the IPSL Earth system model.
Biogeosciences 12 (13), 4133–4148. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/bg-12-41332015.
McGillis, W., Edson, J., Hare, J., Fairall, C., 2001. Direct covariance air-sea CO2 fluxes. J.
Geophys. Res. 106, 16729–16745. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2000JC000506.
Miller, S., Marandino, C., De Bruyn, W., Saltzman, E.S., 2009. Air–sea gas exchange of
CO2 and DMS in the North Atlantic by eddy covariance. Geophys. Res. Lett. 3, 6.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2009GL038907.
Moore, C.M., Mills, M.M., Arrigo, K.R., Berman-Frank, I., Bopp, L., Boyd, P.W.,
Galbraith, E.D., Geider, R.J., Guieu, C., Jaccard, S.L., Jickells, T.D., La Roche, J.,
Lenton, T.M., Mahowald, N.M., Marañón, E., Marinov, I., Moore, J.K., Nakatsuka,
T., Oschlies, A., Saito, M.A., Thingstad, T.F., Tsuda, A., Ulloa, O., 2013. Processes
and patterns of oceanic nutrient limitation. Nat. Geosci. 6, 701–710. doi:http://
dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1765.
Murphy, D.M., Anderson, J.R., Quinn, P.K., McInnes, L.M., Brechtel, F.J., Kreidenweis,
S.M., Middlebrook, A.M., Pósfai, M., Thomson, D.S., Buseck, P.R., 1998. Influence
of sea-salt on aerosol radiative properties in the southern ocean marine
boundary layer. Nature 392, 62–65. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/32138.
Naegler, T., 2009. Reconciliation of excess 14C-constrained global CO2 piston
velocity estimates. Tellus Ser. B 61 (2), 372–384. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j
1600-0889.2008.00408.x.
Nightingale, P.D., Malin, G., Law, C.S., Watson, A.J., Liss, P.S., Liddicoat, M.I., Boutin, J.,
Upstill-Goddard, R.C., 2000. In situ evaluation of air–sea gas exchange
parameterizations using novel conservative and volatile tracers. Global
Biogeochem. Cycles 14 (1), 373–387. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
1999gb900091.
O’Brien, L.M., Harris, N.R.P., Robinson, A.D., Gostlow, B., Warwick, N., Yang, X., Pyle, J.
A., 2009. Bromocarbons in the tropical marine boundary layer at the Cape Verde
Observatory -measurements and modelling. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 9, 9083–9099.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/acp-9-9083-2009.
O’Dowd, C.D., Smith, M.H., 1993. Physicochemical properties of aerosols over the
northeast Atlantic: evidence for wind-speed-related submicron sea-salt aerosol
production. J. Geophys. Res. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/92jd02302.
O’Dowd, C.D., Facchini, M.C., Cavalli, F., Ceburnis, D., Mircea, M., Decesari, S., Fuzzi, S.,
Yoon, Y.J., Putaud, J.-P., 2004. Biogenically driven organic contribution to marine
aerosol. Nature 431, 676–680. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature02959.
Ordóñez, C., Lamarque, J.-F., Tilmes, S., Kinnison, D.E., Atlas, E.L., Blake, D.R., Sousa
Santos, G., Brasseur, G., Saiz-Lopez, A., 2012. Bromine and iodine chemistry in a
global chemistry-climate model: description and evaluation of very short-lived
oceanic sources. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 1423–1447. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-12-1423-2012.
Orellana, M.V., Matrai, P.A., Leck, C., Rauschenberg, C.D., Lee, A.M., Coz, E., 2011.
Marine microgels as a source of cloud condensation nuclei in the high Arctic.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 108, 13612–13617. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/
pnas.1102457108.
Ovadnevaite, J., Ceburnis, D., Martucci, G., Bialek, J., Monahan, C., Rinaldi, M.,
Facchini, M.C., Berresheim, H., Worsnop, D.R., O’Dowd, C., 2011. Primary marine
organic aerosol: A dichotomy of low hygroscopicity and high CCN activity.
Geophys. Res. Lett. 38 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011gl048869.
Pascal, R.W., Yelland, M.J., Srokosz, M.A., Moat, B.I., Waugh, E.M., Comben, D.H.,
Cansdale, A.G., Hartman, M.C., Coles, D.G.H., Chang Hsueh, P., Leighton, T.G.,
2011. A spar buoy for high-frequency wave measurements and detection of
wave breaking in the open ocean. J. Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 28, 590–605. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/2010jtecho764.1.
Pfeil, B., Olsen, A., Bakker, D.C.E., Hankin, S., Koyuk, H., Kozyr, A., Malczyk, J., Manke,
A., Metzl, N., Sabine, C.L., Akl, J., Alin, S.R., Bellerby, R.G.J., Borges, A., Boutin, J.,
Brown, P.J., Cai, W.-J., Chavez, F.P., Chen, A., Cosca, C., Fassbender, A.J., Feely, R.A.,
González-Dávila, M., Goyet, C., Hardman-Mountford, N., Heinze, C., Hood, M.,
Hoppema, M., Hunt, C.W., Hydes, D., Ishii, M., Johannessen, T., Jones, S.D., Key, R.
M., Körtzinger, A., Landschützer, P., Lauvset, S.K., Lefèvre, N., Lenton, A.,
Lourantou, A., Merlivat, L., Midorikawa, T., Mintrop, L., Miyazaki, C., Murata, A.,
Nakadate, A., Nakano, Y., Nakaoka, S., Nojiri, Y., Omar a, M., Padin a, X., Park, G.H., Paterson, K., Perez, F.F., Pierrot, D., Poisson, A., Ríos a, F., Santana-Casiano, J.
M., Salisbury, J., Sarma, V.V.S.S., Schlitzer, R., Schneider, B., Schuster, U., Sieger, R.,
Skjelvan, I., Steinhoff, T., Suzuki, T., Takahashi, T., Tedesco, K., Telszewski, M.,
Thomas, H., Tilbrook, B., Tjiputra, J., Vandemark, D., Veness, T., Wanninkhof, R.,
Watson, A.J., Weiss, R., Wong, C.S., Yoshikawa-Inoue, H., 2012. A uniform, quality
controlled Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT). Earth Syst. Sci. Data Discuss. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essdd-5-735-2012.
Plane, J.M.C., Plowright, R.J., Wright, T.G., 2006. A theoretical study of the ionmolecule chemistry of K+. X complexes (X = O, O2, N2, CO2, H2O): implications
for the upper atmosphere. J. Phys. Chem. A 110, 3093–3100. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1021/jp054416g.
Pollard, R.T., Salter, I., Sanders, R.J., Lucas, M.I., Moore, C.M., Mills, R.A., Statham, P.J.,
Allen, J.T., Baker, A.R., Bakker, D.C.E., Charette, M.A., Fielding, S., Fones, G.R.,
French, M., Hickman, A.E., Holland, R.J., Hughes, J.A., Jickells, T.D., Lampitt, R.S.,
Morris, P.J., Nédélec, F.H., Nielsdóttir, M., Planquette, H., Popova, E.E., Poulton, A.
J., Read, J.F., Seeyave, S., Smith, T., Stinchcombe, M., Taylor, S., Thomalla, S.,
Venables, H.J., Williamson, R., Zubkov, M.V., 2009. Southern Ocean deep-water
carbon export enhanced by natural iron fertilization. Nature 457, 577–580. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/nature07716.
Prather, K.A., Bertram, T.H., Grassian, V.H., Deane, G.B., Stokes, M.D., Demott, P.J.,
Aluwihare, L.I., Palenik, B.P., Azam, F., Seinfeld, J.H., Moffet, R.C., Molina, M.J.,
Cappa, C.D., Geiger, F.M., Roberts, G.C., Russell, L.M., Ault, A.P., Baltrusaitis, J.,
Collins, D.B., Corrigan, C.E., Cuadra-Rodriguez, L.A., Ebben, C.J., Forestieri, S.D.,
Guasco, T.L., Hersey, S.P., Kim, M.J., Lambert, W.F., Modini, R.L., Mui, W., Pedler, B.
E., Ruppel, M.J., Ryder, O.S., Schoepp, N.G., Sullivan, R.C., Zhao, D., 2013. Bringing
the ocean into the laboratory to probe the chemical complexity of sea spray
aerosol. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 110, 7550–7555. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1073/pnas.1300262110.
Pyle, J.A., Ashfold, M.J., Harris, N.R.P., Robinson, A.D., Warwick, N.J., Carver, G.D.,
Gostlow, B., O'Brien, L.M., Manning, A.J., Phang, S.M., Yong, S.E., Leong, K.P., Ung,
E.H., Ong, S., 2011. Bromoform in the tropical boundary layer of the Maritime
Continent during OP3. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 11, 529–542. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-11-529-2011.
Quinn, P.K., Bates, T.S., 2011. The case against climate regulation via oceanic
phytoplankton sulphur emissions. Nature 480, 51–56. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1038/nature10580.
Quinn, P.K., Bates, T.S., Schulz, K.S., Coffman, D.J., Frossard, A.A., Russell, L.M., Keene,
W.C., Kieber, D.J., 2014. Contribution of sea surface carbon pool to organic
matter enrichment in sea spray aerosol. Nat. Geosci. 7, 228–232. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1038/ngeo2092.
Randall, K., Scarratt, M., Levasseur, M., Michaud, S., Xie, H., Gosselin, M., 2012. First
measurements of nitrous oxide in Arctic sea ice. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 117 doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2011jc007340.
Rockström, J., Steffen, W., Noone, K., Persson, Å., Chapin, F.S., Lambin, E., Lenton, T.
M., Scheffer, M., Folke, C., Schellnhuber, H.J., Nykvist, B., de Wit, C.Å., Hughes, T.,
van der Leeuw, S., Rodhe, H., Sörlin, S., Snyder, P.K., Costanza, R., Svedin, U.,
Falkenmark, M., Karlberg, L., Corell, R.W., Fabry, V.J., Hansen, J., Walker, B.,
Liverman, D., Richardson, K., Crutzen, P., Foley, J., 2009. A safe operating space
for humanity. Nature 461, 472–475. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/461472a.
Russell, L.M., Hawkins, L.N., Frossard, A.A., Quinn, P.K., Bates, T.S., 2010.
Carbohydrate-like composition of submicron atmospheric particles and their
production from ocean bubble bursting. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107, 6652–
6657. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0908905107.
Sabine, C.L., Hankin, S., Koyuk, H., Bakker, D.C.E., Pfeil, B., Olsen, A., Metzl, N., Kozyr,
A., Fassbender, A., Manke, A., Malczyk, J., Akl, J., Alin, S.R., Bellerby, R.G.J., Borges,
A., Boutin, J., Brown, P.J., Cai, W.-J., Chavez, F.P., Chen, A., Cosca, C., Feely, R.A.,
González-Dávila, M., Goyet, C., Hardman-Mountford, N., Heinze, C., Hoppema,
M., Hunt, C.W., Hydes, D., Ishii, M., Johannessen, T., Key, R.M., Körtzinger, A.,
Landschützer, P., Lauvset, S.K., Lefèvre, N., Lenton, A., Lourantou, A., Merlivat, L.,
Midorikawa, T., Mintrop, L., Miyazaki, C., Murata, A., Nakadate, A., Nakano, Y.,
Nakaoka, S., Nojiri, Y., Omar, A.M., Padin, X.A., Park, G.-H., Paterson, K., Perez, F.F.,
Pierrot, D., Poisson, A., Ríos, A.F., Salisbury, J., Santana-Casiano, J.M., Sarma, V.V.
S.S., Schlitzer, R., Schneider, B., Schuster, U., Sieger, R., Skjelvan, I., Steinhoff, T.,
Suzuki, T., Takahashi, T., Tedesco, K., Telszewski, M., Thomas, H., Tilbrook, B.,
Vandemark, D., Veness, T., Watson, A.J., Weiss, R., Wong, C.S., Yoshikawa-Inoue,
H., 2013. Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) gridded data products. Earth Syst. Sci.
Data Discuss. 5, 781–804. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/essdd-5-781-2012.
Saiz-Lopez, A., Plane, J.M.C., Baker, A.R., Carpenter, L.J., von Glasow, R., Martín, J.C.G.,
McFiggans, G., Saunders, R.W., 2012. Atmospheric chemistry of iodine. Chem.
Rev. 112, 1773–1804. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/cr200029u.
Santoro, A.E., Buchwald, C., McIlvin, M.R., Casciotti, K.L., 2011. Isotopic signature of
N2O produced by marine ammonia-oxidizing archaea. Science 333, 1282–1285.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/science.1208239.
Shaw, G.E., 1983. Bio-controlled thermostasis involving the sulfur cycle. Clim.
Change 5, 297–303. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/bf02423524.
Shi, Q., Petrick, G., Quack, B., Marandino, C., Wallace, D., 2014. Seasonal variability of
methyl iodide in the Kiel Fjord. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 119, 1609–1620. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/2013jc009328.
Singh, A., Gandhi, N., Ramesh, R., 2012. Contribution of atmospheric nitrogen
deposition to new production in the nitrogen limited photic zone of the
northern Indian Ocean. J. Geophys. Res. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/
2011jc007737.
Smetacek, V., Klaas, C., Strass, V.H., Assmy, P., Montresor, M., Cisewski, B., Savoye, N.,
Webb, A., D’Ovidio, F., Arrieta, J.M., Bathmann, U., Bellerby, R., Berg, G.M., Croot,
P., Gonzalez, S., Henjes, J., Herndl, G.J., Hoffmann, L.J., Leach, H., Losch, M., Mills,
M.M., Neill, C., Peeken, I., Röttgers, R., Sachs, O., Sauter, E., Schmidt, M.M.,
Schwarz, J., Terbrüggen, A., Wolf-Gladrow, D., 2012. Deep carbon export from a
Southern Ocean iron-fertilized diatom bloom. Nature doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1038/nature11229.
SOCAT, 2014. The Surface Ocean CO2 Atlas (SOCAT) Community Event. Workshop 5,
IMBER Open Science Conference, Bergen, Norway, pp. 41.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001
G Model
ANCENE 87 No. of Pages 15
E.H.G. Brévière et al. / Anthropocene xxx (2015) xxx–xxx
SOLAS, 2004. SOLAS Science Plan and Implementation Strategy. IGBP Report No. 50,
Stockholm.
Soloviev, A.V., 2007. Coupled renewal model of ocean viscous sublayer, thermal skin
effect and interfacial gas transfer velocity. J. Mar. Syst. 66, 19–27. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2006.03.024.
Srinivas, B., Sarin, M.M., 2013. Atmospheric deposition of N, P and Fe to the Northern
Indian Ocean: Implications to C- and N-fixation. Sci. Total Environ. 456–457,
104–114. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2013.03.068.
Stefels, J., Steinke, M., Turner, S., Malin, G., Belviso, S., 2007. Environmental
constraints on the production and removal of the climatically active gas
dimethylsulphide (DMS) and implications for ecosystem modelling.
Biogeochemistry 245–275. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10533-007-9091-5.
Steffen, W., Sanderson, A., Tyson, P.D., Jäger, J., Matson, P.A., Moore III, B., Oldfield, F.,
Richardson, K., Schnellhuber, H.J., Turner, B.L., Wasson, R.J., 2004. Global Change
and the Earth System: A Planet Under Pressure. Springer-Verlag, Berlin,
Heidelberg, New York.
Steffen, W., Richardson, K., Rockström, J., Cornell, S., Fetzer, I., Bennett, E., Biggs, R.,
Carpenter, S.R., de Wit, C.A., Folke, C., Mace, G., Persson, L.M., Veerabhadran, R.,
Reyers, B., Sörlin, S., 2015. Planetary boundaries: guiding human development
on a changing planet. Science 347 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1126/
science.1259855.
Suntharalingam, P., Buitenhuis, E., Le Quéré, C., Dentener, F., Nevison, C., Butler, J.H.,
Bange, H.W., Forster, G., 2012. Quantifying the impact of anthropogenic nitrogen
deposition on oceanic nitrous oxide. Geophys. Res. Lett. 39 doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1029/2011gl050778.
Sweeney, C., Gloor, E., Jacobson, A., Key, R., McKinley, G., Sarmiento, J., Wanninkhof,
R., 2007. Constraining global air–sea gas exchange for CO2 with recent bomb 14C
measurements. Global Biogeochem. Cycles 21, GB2015. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.1029/2006GB002784.
Tagliabue, A., Bopp, L., Dutay, J.-C., Bowie, A.R., Chever, F., Jean-Baptiste, P.,
Bucciarelli, E., Lannuzel, D., Remenyi, T., Sarthou, G., Aumont, O., Gehlen, M.,
Jeandel, C., 2010. Hydrothermal contribution to the oceanic dissolved iron
inventory. Nat. Geosci. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/ngeo818.
Takahashi, T., Sutherland, S.C., Sweeney, C., Poisson, A., Metzl, N., Tilbrook, B., Bates,
T., Wanninkhof, R.H., Feeley, R.A., Sabine, C.L., Olafsson, J., Nojiri, Y., 2002. Global
sea-air CO2 flux based on climatological surface ocean pCO2: and seasonal
biological and temperature effects. Deep-Sea Res. Part II 49, 1601–1622. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0967-0645(02)00003-6.
Tegtmeier, S., Krüger, K., Quack, B., Atlas, E.L., Pisso, I., Stohl, A., Yang, X., 2012.
Emission and transport of bromocarbons: from the West Pacific ocean into the
stratosphere. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 12, 10633–10648. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-12-10633-2012.
Tsuda, A., Takeda, S., Saito, H., Nishioka, J., Kudo, I., Nojiri, Y., Suzuki, K., Uematsu, M.,
Wells, M.L., Tsumune, D., Yoshimura, T., Aono, T., Aramaki, Y., Cochlan, W.P.,
Hayakawa, M., Imai, K., Isada, T., Iwamoto, Y., Johnson, W.K., Kameyama, S., Kato,
S., Kiyosawa, H., Kondo, Y., Levasseur, M., Machida, R., Nagao, I., Nakagawa, F.,
Nakanishi, T., Nakatsuka, S., Noiri, Y., Obata, H., Oguma, K., Ono, T., Sakuragi, T.,
Sasakawa, M., Sato, M., Shimamoto, A., Takada, H., Trick, C.G., Watanabe, Y.Y.,
Wong, C.S., Yoshie, N., 2007. Evidence for the grazing hypothesis: grazing
reduces phytoplankton responses of the HNLC ecosystem to iron enrichment in
the western subarctic Pacific (SEEDS II). J. Oceanogr. 63, 983–994. doi:http://dx.
doi.org/10.1007/s10872-007-0082-x.
Twohy, C.H., Anderson, J.R., 2008. Droplet nuclei in non-precipitating clouds:
composition and size matter. Environ. Res. Lett. 3, 045002. doi:http://dx.doi.
org/10.1088/1748-9326/3/4/045002.
Uematsu, M., Hattori, H., Nakamura, T., Narita, Y., Jung, J., Matsumoto, K., Nakaguchi,
Y., Kumar, M.D., 2010. Atmospheric transport and deposition of anthropogenic
15
substances from the Asia to the East China Sea. Mar. Chem. 120, 108–115. doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.marchem.2010.01.004.
Uno, I., Eguchi, K., Yumimoto, K., Takemura, T., Shimizu, A., Uematsu, M., Liu, Z.,
Wang, Z., Hara, Y., Sugimoto, N., 2009. Asian dust transported one full circuit
around the globe. Nat. Geosci. 2, 557–560. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/
NGEO583.
Vallina, S.M., Simó, R., Anderson, T.R., Gabric, A., Cropp, R., Pacheco, J.M., 2008. A
dynamic model of oceanic sulfur (DMOS) applied to the Sargasso Sea:
simulating the dimethylsulfide (DMS) summer paradox. J. Geophys. Res. 113 doi:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2007jg000415.
Wallace, D.W.R, 2000. SOLAS Open Science Conference attracts broad participation.
U.S. JGOFS News 10, 13.
Wallace, D.W.R., Law, C.S., Boyd, P.W., Collos, Y., Croot, P., Denman, K., Lam, P.J.,
Riebesell, U., Takeda, S., Williamson, P., 2010. Ocean fertilization. A Scientific
Summary for Policy Makers, Paris.
Wanninkhof, R., Park, G.-H., Takahashi, T., Sweeney, C., Feely, R., Nojiri, Y., Gruber, N.,
Doney, S.C., McKinley, G.A., Lenton, A., Le Quéré, C., Heinze, C., Schwinger, J.,
Graven, H., Khatiwala, S., 2013. Global ocean carbon uptake: magnitude,
variability and trends. Biogeosciences 10, 1983–2000. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/bg-10-1983-2013.
Ward, B., Fristedt, T., Callaghan, A.H., Sutherland, G., Sanchez, X., Vialard, J.,
Doeschate, A., 2014. The Air–sea interaction profiler (ASIP): an autonomous
upwardly rising profiler for microstructure measurements in the upper ocean. J.
Atmos. Ocean. Technol. 31, 2246–2267. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1175/JTECH-D14-00010.1.
Watson, A., 1997. Surface Ocean-Lower Atmosphere Study (SOLAS). IGBP Newsl. 31,
9–12.
Williamson, P., Wallace, D.W.R., Law, C.S., Boyd, P.W., Collos, Y., Croot, P., Denman, K.,
Riebesell, U., Takeda, S., Vivian, C., 2012. Ocean fertilization for geoengineering:
a review of effectiveness, environmental impacts and emerging governance.
Process Saf. Environ. Prot. 90, 475–488. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.
psep.2012.10.007.
Yang, M., Blomquist, B.W., Fairall, C.W., Archer, S.D., Huebert, B.J., 2011. Air–sea
exchange of dimethylsulfide in the Southern Ocean: measurements from so
GasEx compared to temperate and tropical regions. J. Geophys. Res. Ocean. 116
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2010jc006526.
Yang, M., Nightingale, P.D., Beale, R., Liss, P.S., Blomquist, B., Fairall, C., 2013.
Atmospheric deposition of methanol over the Atlantic Ocean. Proc. Natl. Acad.
Sci. U. S. A. 110, 20034–20039. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1317840110.
Yang, M., Blomquist, B.W., Nightingale, P.D., 2014. Air–sea exchange of methanol and
acetone during HiWinGS: estimation of air phase, water phase gas transfer
velocities. J. Geophys. Res. 119, 7308–7323. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/
2014JC010227.
Yokouchi, Y., Osada, K., Wada, M., Hasebe, F., Agama, M., Murakami, R., Mukai, H.,
Nojiri, Y., Inuzuka, Y., Toom-Sauntry, D., Fraser, P., 2008. Global distribution and
seasonal concentration change of methyl iodide in the atmosphere. J. Geophys.
Res. 113 doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1029/2008jd009861.
Ziska, F., Quack, B., Abrahamsson, K., Archer, S.D., Atlas, E., Bell, T., Butler, J.H.,
Carpenter, L.J., Jones, C.E., Harris, N.R.P., Hepach, H., Heumann, K.G., Hughes, C.,
Kuss, J., Krüger, K., Liss, P., Moore, R.M., Orlikowska, A., Raimund, S., Reeves, C.E.,
Reifenhäuser, W., Robinson, A.D., Schall, C., Tanhua, T., Tegtmeier, S., Turner, S.,
Wang, L., Wallace, D., Williams, J., Yamamoto, H., Yvon-Lewis, S., Yokouchi, Y.,
2013. Global sea-to-air flux climatology for bromoform, dibromomethane and
methyl iodide. Atmos. Chem. Phys. 13, 8915–8934. doi:http://dx.doi.org/
10.5194/acp-13-8915-2013.
Please cite this article in press as: E.H.G. Brévière, et al., Surface ocean-lower atmosphere study: Scientific synthesis and contribution to Earth
system science, Anthropocene (2015), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ancene.2015.11.001