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Table of Contents Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................... 1 What is Social Psychology? ..................................................................................................................... 1 Social Psychology and Personality ......................................................................................................... 3 Social Psychology and Common Sense ................................................................................................... 5 Relying on our Common Sense ................................................................................................... 5 What are the Limitations of Common Sense? .................................................................................. 5 A Brief History of Social Psychology...................................................................................................... 8 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World .................................................................................... 10 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 11 Key Terms.............................................................................................................................................. 12 References .............................................................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 2: RESEARCH METHODS IN SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY ................................................... 13 The Research Hypothesis....................................................................................................................... 13 Building on Existing Research ...................................................................................................... 14 Exploring the Implications of a Theory .......................................................................................... 14 Sampling and Generalization ................................................................................................................. 15 Samples and Populations ................................................................................................................ 15 Probability sampling ..................................................................................................................... 15 Sampling Bias and Non-probability Sampling ............................................................................... 16 Sample Size and Margin of Error .................................................................................................. 16 Observational Research.......................................................................................................................... 17 Correlational Research ........................................................................................................................... 18 The Survey Method................................................................................................................................ 20 Interviews........................................................................................................................................ 21 Questionnaires ................................................................................................................................ 21 Experimental Research .......................................................................................................................... 22 The Role of Ethics in Research.............................................................................................................. 23 Ethical Treatment of Human Participants....................................................................................... 23 Is Deception Justified?.................................................................................................................... 25 The Ethics of Communicating With the Public .............................................................................. 26 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World .................................................................................... 26 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 27 Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. 27 References .............................................................................................................................................. 28 Chapter 3: SOCIAL COGNITION .......................................................................................................... 29 Schemas: The Building Blocks of Thinking .......................................................................................... 30 Which Schemas Get Activated ............................................................................................................. 31 Negative Effects of Schemas ................................................................................................................. 32 Deadly Consequences of Schemas......................................................................................................... 34 Positive Effects of Schemas ................................................................................................................... 35 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World ................................................................................... 36 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 38 Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. 38 References .............................................................................................................................................. 38 Chapter 4: SOCIAL PERCEPTION ....................................................................................................... 41 Nonverbal Communication .................................................................................................................... 41 You Can (and do) Judge a Book by its Cover........................................................................................ 43 Culture Influences Implicit Personality Theories ........................................................................... 43 Causal Attributions ................................................................................................................................ 45 Kelley’s Covariation Theory .......................................................................................................... 45 Table of Contents iii The Correspondence Bias ............................................................................................................... The Two-Step Process..................................................................................................................... The Role of Individualistic versus Collectivist Culture in Making Attributions ........................... Potentially Problematic Social Attributions ........................................................................................... The Actor-Observer Bias ................................................................................................................ Self-serving Attributions................................................................................................................. False Consensus ............................................................................................................................. False Uniqueness............................................................................................................................. Illusory Correlation ........................................................................................................................ Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World..................................................................................... Summary ................................................................................................................................................ Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. References .............................................................................................................................................. 46 47 47 47 47 48 48 49 49 49 50 51 51 Chapter 5: THE SELF: UNDERSTANDING OURSELVES IN RELATION TO OTHERS ............53 How Do We Come to Know Ourselves? ............................................................................................... 53 Developing a Self-concept ..................................................................................................................... 54 Using Others For Comparison ........................................................................................................ 54 Learning From Our Culture ............................................................................................................ 55 Observing Our Own Behavior ........................................................................................................ 56 Introspection.................................................................................................................................... 57 Exerting Self-control ...................................................................................................................... 58 How Do We Present Ourselves to Others? ............................................................................................ 58 Impression Management ................................................................................................................. 59 The Self-esteem Debate ......................................................................................................................... 60 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World..................................................................................... 61 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 62 Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. 63 References .............................................................................................................................................. 63 Chapter 6: CONSISTENCY AND RATIONALIZATION ....................................................................65 Eating Grasshoppers, Telling Lies, and Other Tales of Dissonance ...................................................... 65 Attitude-Behavior Inconsistency..................................................................................................... 66 Effort Justification........................................................................................................................... 67 Post-decision dissonance................................................................................................................. 68 Reducing Dissonance ...................................................................................................................... 69 A “New Look” at Cognitive Dissonance Theory............................................................................ 70 Alternatives to Dissonance Theory ........................................................................................................ 70 Self-Affirmation Theory ................................................................................................................. 70 Self-Perception Theory ................................................................................................................... 71 Beyond Internal Consistency: Rationalizing the World Around Us ...................................................... 71 Heider’s Balance Theory................................................................................................................. 71 Belief in a Just World...................................................................................................................... 72 System Justification Theory............................................................................................................ 72 Terror Management Theory ............................................................................................................ 73 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World..................................................................................... 73 Summary ................................................................................................................................................ 75 Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. 76 References .............................................................................................................................................. 76 Chapter 7: ATTITUDE AND ATTITUDE CHANGE ...........................................................................79 Attitudes and Their Function.................................................................................................................. 79 Implicit and Explicit Attitudes ........................................................................................................ 80 Routes to Persuasion .............................................................................................................................. 82 Elaboration Likelihood Model ........................................................................................................ 82 Heuristic-systematic model............................................................................................................. Heuristics ........................................................................................................................................ Need for cognition and need for affect ........................................................................................... Psychological Reactance ....................................................................................................................... Attitude Change Through Fear .............................................................................................................. Subliminal Persuasion............................................................................................................................ Attitude Change Through Intuition........................................................................................................ Applying Social Psychology: Resisting Persuasion............................................................................... Summary ................................................................................................................................................ Key Terms ............................................................................................................................................. References .............................................................................................................................................. 82 83 84 84 85 86 88 88 89 90 90 Chapter 8: CONFORMITY, OBEDIENCE, AND COMPLIANCE .................................................... 93 I’m Doing the Same Thing You Are Doing – Is That Conformity? ...................................................... 93 Is Conformity Good or Bad? ................................................................................................................. 94 Informational Social Influence............................................................................................................... 94 An Experiment on the Importance of Being Right ......................................................................... 94 Four Conditions Conducive to Informational Influence ................................................................ 95 Some Words of Caution.................................................................................................................. 95 Normative Social Influence ................................................................................................................... 96 Violate Social Norms at Your Own Peril ....................................................................................... 97 When Are People Most Likely to Conform to Normative Social Influence?................................. 97 Violating Social Norms (and Getting Away With It) ............................................................................ 98 Earning the Right to be Different ................................................................................................... 98 Minority Influence- Trying to Change the Group From Within..................................................... 98 What Kinds of Persons are Most Susceptible to Normative Influence?......................................... 99 Obedience to Authority ........................................................................................................................ 100 What is the Relationship Between Conformity and Obedience?.................................................. 100 A Famous (and controversial) Study of Obedience ..................................................................... 100 Variations on the Same Theme ..................................................................................................... 101 Attempts to Solicit Compliance .......................................................................................................... 102 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World .................................................................................. 104 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 105 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 106 References ............................................................................................................................................ 106 Chapter 9: PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR: WHAT MAKES PEOPLE HELP? .................................... 109 Why We Help Others ........................................................................................................................... 109 The Case for Nature ...................................................................................................................... 109 Social Exchange............................................................................................................................ 110 Empathy and Altruism .................................................................................................................. 111 Are Some Kinds of Persons More Helpful Than Others?.................................................................... 111 The Role of Gender....................................................................................................................... 111 Mood ............................................................................................................................................. 112 Belief in a Just World ................................................................................................................... 112 Need for Approval ........................................................................................................................ 112 Empathy ........................................................................................................................................ 113 The Power of the Situation .................................................................................................................. 113 The Good Samaritan ..................................................................................................................... 113 Bystanders – When More is Not Merrier...................................................................................... 114 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World .................................................................................. 116 Things you can do to promote altruism in yourself and others ................................................... 116 Things you can do to increase the odds that you will get help if needed ..................................... 116 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 117 Table of Contents v Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 117 Videos................................................................................................................................................... 117 References ............................................................................................................................................ 117 Chapter 10: AGGRESSIVE BEHAVIOR .............................................................................................119 The Nature of Aggression .................................................................................................................... 119 Biology of aggression ................................................................................................................... 119 Nature and nurture......................................................................................................................... 120 Self-control........................................................................................................................................... 120 The Evolution of Aggression ............................................................................................................... 122 Aggression and Culture ........................................................................................................................ 123 Social learning of aggression ........................................................................................................ 123 Catharsis .............................................................................................................................................. 125 Provoking and Enhancing Aggression ................................................................................................ 127 Temperature .................................................................................................................................. 127 Alcohol.......................................................................................................................................... 127 Punishment.................................................................................................................................... 128 Justifying Aggression ........................................................................................................................... 128 Applying Social Psychology in Order to Reduce Aggression ............................................................. 129 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 130 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 130 References ............................................................................................................................................ 131 Chapter 11: INTERPERSONAL ATTRACTION ................................................................................133 Why Do We Have a Need to Belong?.................................................................................................. 133 The Need to Belong ...................................................................................................................... 133 Loneliness ..................................................................................................................................... 134 Ostracism ...................................................................................................................................... 134 The Nature of Attraction: Why Do I Like This Person, but Not That Person?.................................... 135 Proximity and Mere Exposure ...................................................................................................... 135 Reciprocity .................................................................................................................................... 135 Similarity....................................................................................................................................... 135 Physical Attractiveness ................................................................................................................. 136 Evolutionary Perspective on Attraction ........................................................................................ 137 Becoming Intimate: What’s Love Got to Do with It? .......................................................................... 138 Types of Relationships.................................................................................................................. 138 Theories of Relationships..................................................................................................................... 138 Social Penetration Theory ............................................................................................................. 139 Social Exchange Theory ............................................................................................................... 139 Equity Theory ............................................................................................................................... 140 What is Love? (Baby Don’t Hurt Me) ................................................................................................ 141 Sternberg’s triangle theory............................................................................................................ 141 Passionate Love............................................................................................................................. 141 Companionate Love ..................................................................................................................... 142 Applying Social Psychology in “Today’s World” ............................................................................... 142 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 143 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 144 References ............................................................................................................................................ 144 Chapter 12: GROUP PROCESSES .......................................................................................................149 The Nature of Groups........................................................................................................................... 149 Defining Groups............................................................................................................................ 149 Why do we Join Groups? ......................................................................................................... 150 The Development and Structure of Groups .................................................................................. 150 The Social Aspects of Performance ..................................................................................................... 151 vi Table of Contents Social Facilitation: How the Presence of Others Influences our Performance............................. 151 Explaining Social Facilitation Effects .......................................................................................... 152 Social Loafing: Why Does Working in Groups Often Lead to a Reduction in Individual Effort? 153 Group Decision Making....................................................................................................................... 155 The Stages of Group Decision Making......................................................................................... 155 Group Polarization ........................................................................................................................ 157 Groupthink .................................................................................................................................... 159 Pressures toward Uniformity .................................................................................................. 159 Causes of Groupthink ................................................................................................................... 160 Preventing Groupthink.................................................................................................................. 161 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World ................................................................................. 161 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 163 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 163 References ............................................................................................................................................ 164 Chapter 13: PREJUDICE ....................................................................................................................... 167 Stereotyping: The Cognitive Basis of Prejudice .................................................................................. 168 Origins of Stereotypes .................................................................................................................. 168 Maintaining Stereotypes ............................................................................................................... 170 Stereotype Activation ................................................................................................................... 171 Prejudice: The Affective Component .................................................................................................. 172 Competition and Threat as Sources of Prejudice.......................................................................... 172 Prejudice as a Self-Esteem Booster .............................................................................................. 172 Contemporary Prejudice ...................................................................................................................... 174 Three Theories of Contemporary Prejudice.................................................................................. 175 Prejudice and Implicit Attitudes ................................................................................................... 176 The Effect on the Target ...................................................................................................................... 176 Stereotype Threat .......................................................................................................................... 177 Reducing Prejudice .............................................................................................................................. 177 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World .................................................................................. 178 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 178 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 179 References ............................................................................................................................................ 179 Chapter 14: SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY, STRESS, AND YOUR HEALTH ....................................... 183 Stress and Your Health ........................................................................................................................ 183 What is Stress and How do we Measure it?.................................................................................. 183 Coping With Stress .............................................................................................................................. 185 Social Support in Coping with Stress ........................................................................................... 186 Other Variables Related to Coping ............................................................................................... 186 Applying Social Psychology in Today’s World (Prevention & Treatment) ........................................ 188 Summary .............................................................................................................................................. 191 Key Terms ........................................................................................................................................... 191 References ............................................................................................................................................ 191 Table of Contents vii