Download AP Biology Outline for Human Systems

AP Biology Outline for Animal Systems
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION (EMPHASIS ON VERTEBRATES) OF:
TISSUES, ORGANS, AND SYSTEMS;
HOMEOSTASIS, IMMUNE RESPONSE.
Free Response Questions
1959:
The blood, lymph, and other internal fluids have often been referred to as
the "internal environment" of the cells. Many parts of the body are involved
in maintaining the constancy of this internal environment.
Discuss how 1) the kidneys and 2) the endocrine glands help to maintain the
constancy of the internal environment.
1961 - 1:
Describe and compare the excretory system of a flatworm (Platyhelminthes),
an earthworm (Annelida), and a grasshopper (Arthropoda).
Include labeled diagrams with your answer.
1961 - 2:
Discuss the structure and function of the sympathetic and parasympathetic
nervous system of a mammal. What neurohumors are associated with each
system?
Labeled diagrams may be included with your answer.
1962:
a. Compare the digestive system of a planarian with that of an earthworm.
b. Compare the body wall of a hydra with that of a tapeworm.
c. Compare the circulatory system of a crayfish with that of an earthworm.
1964 - 1:
a. Make a schematic diagram of a typical myelinated motor neuron. Make the
diagram the size of a full page and label it completely.
b. List the part included in your diagram and describe briefly the function
performed by each one.
c. Discuss the mechanism of synaptic transmission.
1964 - 2:
In normal metabolism, the glucose concentration of the blood tends to remain
constant (within a range of 80 to 120 milligrams per hundred milliliters).
Discuss the role of each of the following in maintaining this homeostatic
condition:
a. the kidneys
b. the islands of Langerhans
c. the pituitary gland
1964 - 3:
Describe the structure and the mechanism of operation of each of the
following:
a. a pseudopodium
b. a flagellum
c. a striated muscle cell
1965:
Discuss each
heartbeat in
a. the
b. the
c. the
of the following as it relates to the functioning of the
a mammal:
autonomic nervous system
structure of cardiac muscle
sinus node, the auriculoventricular bundle (bundle of His)
1966:
Irritability of responsiveness to stimuli is a common characteristic of
living organisms.
Among many others these responses include:
a. Geotropic responses in plants
b. Simple reflex responses in animals
Discuss each of these responses. Your answer should include a description
of:
a. the responses
b. an experiment which will demonstrate the responses
c. the mechanisms involved in the responses
1967:
Nitrogenous waste products are excreted by animals in various forms. Many
aquatic animals excrete ammonia, birds and reptiles excrete uric acid, and
man excretes urea.
Describe the formation of two of these waste products and discuss the
adaptive value of these three methods of nitrogenous excretion.
1968:
Self-regulatory or homeostatic feedback mechanisms are present in the
endocrine, vascular, and respiratory systems of vertebrates. Describe one
such feedback system, discussing the evidence which indicates that feedback
occurs.
1971 - 1:
Describe the anatomy and physiology of the autonomic nervous system of
vertebrates. How does this system help a vertebrate to survive?
1971 - 2:
The transmission of an impulse from a nerve to the surface of a resting
muscle initiates a contraction in that muscle. Biochemical and biophysical
studies of muscle tissue have resulted in an explanation for muscle
contraction known as the sliding-filament theory.
a. Describe the chemical changes that occur when a nerve impulse is
transmitted to the surface of a resting muscle cell.
b. Describe the internal structure of a muscle fiber as revealed by
electron microscopy.
c. On the basis of this structure, explain the sliding-filament theory.
1973:
The action of organs and organ systems must be coordinated. Discuss the
interaction of factors involved in controlling heart rate and breathing rate
in mammals during periods of relaxation and periods of stress.
1974:
Individual organisms make short-term adjustments to temporary environmental
changes in temperature, moisture, light, or the chemical environment. Choose
any one of these environmental factors and describe mechanisms by which
a) animals and b) plants may adjust to changes in that factor.
1975 - 1:
Regulation of biological systems is commonly achieved by means of feedback
control. In each of the following systems, describe how feedback control is
used for regulation, and give a specific example for each system.
a. the size of a population
b. the rate of physiological process
c. the rate of an enzyme reaction
1975 - 2:
The immune response of organisms involve antigens, antibodies, and other
factors. Describe the immune response and discuss its role in three of the
following phenomena:
a. blood transfusions
b. Rh incompatibility
c. tissue transplants
1976:
Discuss the intake, transport, exchange, and release of gases in mammals.
1978:
Discuss the mechanism by which a muscle cell contracts or a nerve cell
transmits an impulse. Include in your discussion the relationship between
cell structure and function.
1979:
Describe the structure and function of the stomach, pancreas, and small
intestine as digestive and endocrine organs in the human. (For each organ,
include the relevant cell types and their functions.)
1980:
In humans, discuss the transport of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) by the
blood and exchange of these gases between the blood and cells of the body.
Include in your discussion the cellular and fluid composition of the blood.
1981 - 1:
Describe the structure and function of the mammalian kidney. Include a
discussion of the regulation of water balance by kidney and hormonal
interaction.
1981 - 2:
Describe the structure and function of the reflex arc in higher vertebrates.
Include a description of the cell types and a discussion of the mechanism of
transmission of the impulse.
1982:
Describe the following mechanisms of response to foreign materials in the
human body.
a. The antigen-antibody response to a skin graft from another person.
b. The reactions of the body leading to inflammation of a wound
infected by bacteria.
1983:
Describe the structure of a mammalian respiratory system. Include in your
discussion the mechanisms of inspiration and expiration.
1984:
Discuss the sources and actions of each of the following pairs of hormones
in humans and describe the feedback mechanisms that control their release.
a. Insulin..glucagon
b. Parthyroid hormone..calcitonin
c. Thyrotropin (TSH) ..thyroxine (T4)
1985:
Describe the anatomical and functional similarities and differences within
each of the following pairs of structures.
a. Artery..vein
b. Small intestine..colon
c. Skeletal muscle..cardiac muscle
d. Anterior pituitary..posterior pituitary
1986 - 1:
Beginning at the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction,
describe the physical and biochemical events involved in the contraction of
a skeletal muscle fiber. Include the structure of the fiber in your
discussion.
1986 - 2:
Describe the processes of fat and protein digestion and product absorption
as they occur in the human stomach and small intestine. Include a discussion
of the enzymatic reactions involved.
1987:
Discuss the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide that occur at the alveoli
and muscle cells of mammals. Include in your answer a description of the
transport of these gases in the blood.
1989:
Describe negative and positive feedback loops, and discuss how feedback
mechanisms regulate each of the following:
a. The menstrual cycle in a nonpregnant human female.
b. Blood glucose levels in humans.
1991:
The graph below shows the response of the human immune system to exposure
to an antigen. Use this graph to answer part a and part b of this question.
a. Describe the events that occur during period I
as the immune system responds to the initial
exposure to the antigen.
b. Describe the events that occur during period
II following a second exposure to the same
antigen.
c. Explain how infection by the AIDS virus (HIV)
affects the function of both T and B lymphocytes.
1992 - 1:
Biological recognition is important in many processes at the molecular,
cellular, and organismal levels. Select three of the following, and for each
of the three that you have chosen, explain how the process of recognition
occurs and give an example.
a.
Organisms recognize others as members of their own species.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Neurotransmitters are recognized in the synapse.
Antigens trigger antibody responses.
Nucleic acids are complementary.
Target cells respond to specific hormones.
1992 - 2:
Survival depends on the ability of an organism to respond to changes in its
environment. Some plants flower in response to changes in day length. Some
mammals may run or fight when frightened. For both of these examples,
describe the physiological mechanism involved in the response.
1993:
Many physiological changes occur during exercise.
(a) Design a controlled experiment to test the hypothesis that an exercise
session causes short-term increases in heart rate and breathing rate
in humans.
(b) Explain how at least three organ systems are affected by this increased
physical activity and discuss interactions among these systems.
1994:
Discuss how cellular structures, including the plasma membrane,
specialized endoplasmic reticulum, cytoskeletal elements, and mitochondria,
function together in the contraction of skeletal muscle cells.
1996:
Structure and function are related in the various organ systems of animals.
Select two of the following four organ systems in vertebrates:
*
*
*
*
respiratory
digestive
excretory
nervous
For each of the two systems you choose, discuss the structure and function
of two adaptations that aid in the transport or exchange of molecules (or
ions). Be sure to related structure to function in each example.
1999:
Communication occurs among the cells in a multicellular organism. Choose THREE
of the following examples of cell-to-cell communication, and for each example,
describe the communication that occurs and the types of responses that result
from this communication.
 Communication between two plant cells
 Communication between two immune-system cells
 Communication either between a neuron and another neuron, or between a
neuron and a muscle cell
 Communication between a specific endocrine-gland cell and its target cell
2000:
Feedback mechanisms are used by organisms to maintain the steady-state
physiological condition known as homeostasis. Choose three of the following and
for each, explain how feedback mechanisms maintain homeostasis.
a) Blood glucose concentration.
b) Calcium ion concentration in blood.
c) Body temperature in mammals.
d) Osmolarity of the blood.
e) Pulse rate in mammals.
2001:
In biological systems, structure and function are related. Choose three of the
following components of organ systems.
alveolus
villus
sarcomere
capillary
nephron
neuron
a) For each component, describe the structure of the component and explain how
that structure is responsible for the function of that component.
b) For the three components that you chose in part a, explain how the
structure of the component contributes to the functioning of the organ
system to which it belongs.
2002:
The complexity of structure and function varies widely across the animal kingdom.
Despite this variation, animals exhibit common processes. These include the
following.
 transport of materials
 response to stimuli
 gas exchange
 locomotion
(a) Choose two of the processes above and for each, describe the relevant
structures and how they function to accomplish the process in the following
phyla.
Cnidaria (e.g., hydra, jellyfish)
Annelida (e.g., earthworm)
Chordata (e.g., mouse)
(b) Explain the adaptive (evolutionary) value(s) of the structural examples you
described in part a.
2005 - 1:
An important defense against diseases in vertebrate animals is the ability to
eliminate, inactivate, or destroy foreign substances and organisms. Explain how
the immune system achieves THREE of the following:
 Provides an immediate nonspecific immune response
 Activates T and B cells in response to an infection
 Responds to a later exposure to the same infectious agent
 Distinguishes self from nonself
2006:
The evolution of circulatory systems allowed larger and more-complex animals to
arise.
(a) Describe the respiratory and digestive systems’ specialized structures
that facilitate the movement of oxygen and glucose into the circulatory
system of mammals.
(b) Explain how oxygen and glucose are transported within the circulatory
system of mammals.
(c) Explain the transfer of oxygen and glucose from the blood and into the
active cells of mammals.
2007 - 1:
Cephalization and the development of a brain were important steps in animal
evolution.
(a) Discuss the evolutionary origin and adaptive significance of cephalization
in animal phyla.
(b) Describe the development of the nervous system in the vertebrate embryo.
(c) At the sound of shattering glass, people quickly turn their heads.
Discuss how the nervous system functions to produce this type of response
to an external stimulus.
2007 - 2:
Membranes are essential components of all cells.
(a) Identify THREE macromolecules that are components of the plasma membrane in a
eukaryotic cell and discuss the structure and function of each.
(b) Explain how membranes participate in THREE of the following biological
processes:

Muscle contraction

Fertilization of an egg

Chemiosmotic production of ATP

Intercellular signaling
2007 – 3:
The defenses of the human body to the entry and establishment of a pathogen
(disease-causing organism) can be divided into nonspecific responses and specific
responses.
(a) Explain how THREE types of nonspecific defenses can prevent the entry and/or
establishment of a pathogen in a person’s body.
(b) Discuss how the immune system responds to an initial pathogenic exposure, and
how this initial exposure can lead to a quicker response following a second
exposure to the same pathogen.
(c) Explain the biological mechanisms that lead to the rejection of transplanted
organs.
2008:
The physical structure of a protein often reflects and affects its function.
(a) Describe THREE types of chemical bonds/interactions found in proteins. For
each type, describe its role in determining protein structure.
(b) Discuss how the structure of a protein affects the function of TWO of the
following.
• Muscle contraction
• Regulation of enzyme activity
• Cell signaling
(c) Abnormal hemoglobin is the identifying characteristic of sickle cell anemia.
Explain the genetic basis of the abnormal hemoglobin. Explain why the sickle
cell allele is selected for in certain areas of the world.
2005 – 2:
In the evolution of organisms, major adaptations arose in certain groups, opening
new evolutionary possibilities. For two of the following types of organisms,
discuss the evolutionary significance of the features listed.
(a) Flowering plants: flowers, fruits and seeds, and broad leaves
(b) Flatworms: three germ layers, bilateral symmetry, and cephalization
(c) Segmented worms: segmentation, coelom, and digestive system
(d) Reptiles: amniotic eggs, waterproof skin, and well-developed lungs