Download Sheldon Biology Semester I Review Sheet

Honors Biology Midterm Review Guide: 2015 - 2016 ANSWERS
Introduction
1. Observation uses your senses (smell, taste, touch, see, hear) and is measureable to some degree. Inference
is an application/interpretation of that observation.
2. Qualitative data is information about qualities; information that can't actually be measured. Some examples
of qualitative data are the softness of your skin, the grace with which you run, and the color of your eyes.
However, try telling Photoshop you can't measure color with numbers.
Quantitative data is information about quantities; that is, information that can be measured and written down
with numbers. Some examples of quantitative data are your height, your shoe size, and the length of your
fingernails.
3. Scientific Method (below)
Here's a quick look at the difference between qualitative
and quantitative data.
The age of your car. (Quantitative.)
The number of hairs on your knuckle. (Quantitative.)
The softness of a cat. (Qualitative.)
The color of the sky. (Qualitative.)
The number of pennies in your pocket. (Quantitative.)
4. Independent- the variable being manipulated and
it goes on the X axis; dependent- the variable that
may change from the independent variable being
manipulated and is on the Y axis; test one variable
at a time;
5. Control group – does not contain the variable being tested
Treatment group – contains the variable being tested
Constant/controlled variables – these are things that should
be the same in an experiment that contains a control and
treatment group. They should not be a ‘hidden’ factor that
could have caused a change in an experiment.
6.
There are 1000 um
in a 1 mm.
(um = micrometer)
7. Hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, or a reasoned prediction of a
possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. It is guide for an experiment. In science, a theory is a
tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors. A theory is always backed
by evidence; a hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome, and is testable and falsifiable.
8. Characteristics of Life:

All living things detect changes in their environment and respond to them. (stimulus and response)

All living things grow and develop.

All living things are capable of reproduction, the process by which living things give rise to offspring.
Sexual – 2 parents combine their DNA; Asexual – offspring identical to parent

All living things are able to maintain a constant internal environment through homeostasis.
(ex. Sweat when hot and shiver when cold)

All living things have complex chemistry (obtain and use energy = metabolism)

All forms of life are built of cells. A cell is the basic unit of the structure and function of living things.
(unicellular vs multicellular)
9. Homeostasis – maintaining a balance in your body
Temperature – too hot, sweat; too cold – shiver
Blood pressure – too much water in blood – kidney’s remove water and you urinate more
Not enough water – less urine is created.
Metabolism is obtaining and using energy to live. Remember the A, B, C, D process…
Anabolism is building (dehydration synthesis) and Catabolism is digesting (hydrolysis)
10. Organization: (give an example of each, too)
Biosphere – biome- ecosystem – community --- population—organism---organ system --- organ – tissue –
cell- cell organelle --- molecule ---- atom
So you are probably wondering why this is on here…..
Well we have studied the energy component and eventually we
will be studying ecology, so it seemed like a good place to put
this…
11.
12. Review your lab safety…
Biochemistry
1. What is the atomic number? Atomic weight? An isotope? An ion? Atomic number is the number of
protons in an element – it is its identity. Atomic mass is the number of protons and neutrons in an
element. Isotope is form of an element that weighs more due to more neutrons. Ion is either a positively
or negatively charged element / compound due to gaining or losing electrons.
How are oxygen -18
and
(P = 8, E = 8 and N = 10)
oxygen -16 isotopes?
(P= 8, E = 8 and N = 8)
2. Calculate the number of protons, neutrons, and electrons based on the periodic table. The number
of protons is the atomic number. The number of electrons of an element on the periodic table is the
atomic number. Neutrons are calculated by the atomic mass minus the atomic number.
a. What are the number of protons, electrons and neutrons in Carbon & Chlorine?
Carbon: 6 protons, 6 electrons, 6 neutrons
Chlorine: 17 electrons, 17 protons, 18 neutrons
3. What are the number of electron cloud layers and how many electrons are in each?
Each row of the periodic table is the number of layers in the electron cloud.
Each column (up and down) is the number of electrons in the outer most layer.
a. Draw electron cloud configuration for Magnesium and Chlorine
4. Identify the reactants and products in a chemical equation- reactants are on the left side of the
equation and products are on the right side.
 Hydrogen and oxygen are reactants that make water.
H2 + O2  H2O
 Oxygen and glucose are reactants that hydrolyze to carbon dioxide and water in this
exergonic reaction
6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
5. What is the difference between an ionic and covalent bond? Give an example of each. Ionic bonds
are made when an electron leaves the outer layer of one element and goes to another element – creating
two ions. The atoms attract due to opposite charge like salt Na+ and Cl-. Covalent bonds are when
elements share the electrons in the outermost layer like H2O.
6. Properties of water:
a. Polar – uneven sharing of electrons; this leads to electronegativity
b. Cohesive- due to its polarity, the slight charges are attracted to other things.
This is one of the reasons why a meniscus forms in graduated cylinders
c. Adhesion – water sticks to itself…. This is why water forms a ball on wax paper
d. Surface tension – animals can walk on water due to its adhesion and cohesive properties
e. 3 phases (ice, liquid, gas) depending on the temperature here on earth
f. hydrophilic –
g. ‘universal’ solvent – dissolves like (hydrophilic) substances
h. forms H bonds…
i.
7. What is pH? How does what know if a substance is an acid or base or neutral? pH is the measure of
H+ ion concentration in a solution. Scale 0-14. Less than 7 acid, greater than 7 base. & is considered
neutral or pure water.
8. Chemical formula
structural formula
shorthand formula
C6H12O6
a.
Glucose
b.
9. Identify which functional groups are present for a given molecule.
Hydroxyl
Carboxyl
Amino
Aldehyde
Ketone
phosphate
nitrogen lone pair*
Sulfhydryl
methyl
10. For carbohydrates, fats, and proteins be able to
a. Identify the monomers for each? How does the molecule progress to be a polymer?
b. How does dehydration synthesis work to build a polymer of each group?
c. How does hydrolysis work to break down the polymer of each group?
d. What are the different functions of each group?
Category
Monomers
Polymers
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharide like
glucose or fructose polysaccharide
Fats
Glycerol & 3 fatty
acids  triglyceride.
Dehydration
synthesis & bonds
Remove 1 water to
make a disaccharide
from 2
monosaccharides
Polysaccharides 
Monosaccharides
Remove 3 water
molecules to bind
glycerol with 3 fatty
acids
Triglyceride 
Glycerol + 3 fatty
acids
Sugars, syrups
fats, oils
1.Energy for body
2.Stored energy
1.Stored energy
2.Cell membranes
Hydrolysis (add
water to cut)
Common names/
food
Functions
Proteins
Amino acids 
polypeptide chains 
primary, secondary,
tertiary, quaternary
Remove 1 water molecule
to make a peptide bond
4th structure 3rd
structure  2nd
structure polypeptide
chain  amino acids
meats, legumes
1.Structures- hair, muscle,
tissues
2.Hormones & enzymes
11. What are the different forms and functions of polysaccharides (all glucoses hooked together):
Glycogen- branched chain (short term) stored energy for glucose
Cellulose- structural support in stems of plants (we cannot digest it)
Starch- complex sugar food source found in potatoes, rice, and corn
12. How can you tell the difference between saturated, monounsaturated, and polyunsaturated fats.
Saturated- have no C=C double bonds and all C are saturated with H atoms. Monounsaturated- have one
C=C double bond, and polyunsaturated has two or more C=C bonds.
13. A triglyceride is one glycerol and three fatty acids.
-remove one of the fatty acid chains and add
a phosphate group. The phosphate and glycerol
are polar, hence the head is hydrophilic and the
two tails are still hydrophobic
remember – this is an amphipathic molecule
-phospholipids are used in building cell membranes
14. What is cholesterol and why is it important?
A compound of the sterol type found in most body tissues, including the blood and the nerves.
Cholesterol (three room and a house) and its derivatives are important constituents of cell membranes and
precursors of other steroid compounds, but high concentrations in the blood (mainly derived from animal
fats in the diet) are thought to promote atherosclerosis. It helps to keep membranes fluid when the
temperature is too cold or helps keep it in tact if the temperature gets too high. Like a buffer.
15. What are the 4 types of protein structures? What mechanisms are in place to cause the shape at
each level.
Primary- polypeptide between the amino group and carboxyl group of two separate amino acids
Secondary-alpha helix and beta-pleated sheets—uses H bonds between the C=O and N-H
Tertiary- “R” groups: Ionic bonds, sulfur bridges, hydrophobic reactions, hydrogen bonds.
Quaternary- same as tertiary, but uses two or more tertiary structures together (like hemoglobin which has 4
tertiary structures in it quaternary molecule. Not all proteins have this level
16. Interpret a graph on the effects of an enzyme-interpretation of graph data
17. Potential is stored (like in bonds of a molecule) where kinetic is of action (sunlight, heat)
18. First law: energy cannot be created or destroyed; just rearranged; ultimate source of energy is the sun
Second law: every energy transfer releases untrappable energy known as entropy; this is what keeps our
body warm as we are endotherms.
19. This is the energy coupling diagram that has been on two tests so far….. find it in your book or your
notes and study the parts. Relate # 17 and #18 to this diagram. Learn the associated terms!!!!
20 . ATP – adenosine triphosphate
A nucleotide (sugar, phosphate and a nitrogen) a
are modified by adding one additional phosphate
(now ADP) and then another one to make the
Molecule (ATP).
With the phosphates being negatively charges,
this assists in ‘possibly’ more energy released from
the hydrolysis of the bond.
How is energy released in ATP? When chemical bonds are broken between phosphates energy is
released
21. Three kinds of work when ATP is hydrolyzed:
 Mechanical – muscle movement
 Chemical – building bonds – like anabolism for a protein out of amino acids
 Active transport – using energy via cellular respiration in the mitochondria to go against a gradient
or endo/exocytosis processes
22.
Factors that affect enzymes: (can cause denaturing)
Saltiness
pH
temperature (boiling)
mixing
23. See diagram to right for competitive and
non-competitive inhibition.
Feedback inhibition means an end product,
Turns the series of reactions off until some
Of the end product is consumed.
24. Explain the induced fit model – such as sucrase on sucrose- possible essay question.
E + S --> ES --> E + P / Sucrase (enzyme) binds to sucrose (substrate)  (products) glucose and
fructose +sucrase (enzyme)
25. What is denaturation of an enzyme – how does it occur? Protein breaks down and unfolds due to
extreme temperature and pH changes. Changes its shape and no longer can easily have an induced fit
26. Metabolism: sum of all building and breaking down in your body; assisted with enzymes (A, B, C, D)
A = anabolism
B = building (dehydration synthesis)
C = catabolism
D= digestion/destroying (hydrolysis)
The Cell
1. What is the difference between a plant and animal cell
Plant
Animal
Membrane and cell wall
Plasma membrane
Mitochondria and chloroplast
Mitochondria
Cytoplasm, nucleus
Cytoplasm, nucleus
Most organelles
(has a large central vacuole)
Most organelles
(no large central vacuole)
2. What is the difference between a prokaryote and eukaryote cell
– prokaryotic lacks a nucleus & most other organelles; smaller; circular DNA in nucleoid region
- eukaryotic cell has a membrane bound nucleus and organelles; larger; linear DNA
- both have DNA and ribosomes
3. Why is the phospholipid bilayer important- creates a barrier to regulate the transport of substances in
and out of a cell; hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails, transport proteins. Oxygen and water diffuse
(although water more so by aquaporins), glucose by proteins (facilitated). Exocytosis / endocytosis- moving
material out or into cell by vesicles made of membrane. Amphipathic means there is a water-loving and a
water-hating side of one molecule. This allows a barrier when a bilayer is created.
4. Label the main parts of a cell membrane and discuss structure and function
a. carbohydrate chain (on a lipid – so glycolipid)
b. glycoprotein (sugar on protein)
c. glucose – monomer of carbo chain
d. phospholipid head – hydrophilic area
e. fatty acid tails – hydrophobic area
f. lipid bilayer – forms barrier for cell
g. microfilaments – scaffolding of cell
h. peripheral protein- moves and attachment
i. cholesterol – helps control fluidity of cell membrane
j. transmembrane/intergral protein- associated with
active and passive transport through membrane
5. Passive and Active transport in a cell
a. Diffusion- which way do particles move in an experiment;
could be a general term for molecules to move from high to low
concentration; if referring to a cell, these molecules of discussion
move across the phospholipid bilayer of the membrane
What happens at equilibrium- reached when the movement
of particles in one direction is equal to the number of
particles moving in the other
b. Facilitated Diffusion - passive transport of a substance
using a transmembrane/integral protein embedded in the
semi-permeable lipid bilayer of a cell
1. glucose enters with the assistance of insulin
through a carrier protein
2. water mostly uses an aquaporin (protein channel)
3. three possible types of Osmosis – an example of facilitated diffusion with water moving
through an aquaporin in a semi-permeable membrane from an area of high to low
concentration
Plant cells:
animal cells:
c. Active transport –
1. Can require ATP to move a substance through a carrier transmembrane protein from an area of
high to low concentration. See picture in the right hand corner of this page.
2. Can be referring to endo/exocytosis…. Where a fluid or a solid is taken in by “in pocketing”
and being surrounded by the membrane. Endocytosis can also be receptor mediated….
6. Lab safety- be familiar with class rules for: fire use, acid use, glass breakage, etc.
7. What is the structure (look like) and function of following parts of cell
a. Nucleus: center of cell, circular; the part that houses the cell's genetic material in the form of DNA
b. Nucleolus: ball-like mass of fibers and granules in a cell nucleus; makes ribosomal components
c. Endoplasmic Reticulum: may be smooth (lipid synthesis, glycogen storage, Ca+2 storage, detox
alcohol) or rough ribbon-like (for protein synthesis); network of membranes within a
cell's cytoplasm that produces a variety of molecules
d. Cell wall: box like structure; strong wall outside a plant cell's plasma membrane that protects the cell
and maintains its shape; cellulose for plants, chitin for fungus, peptidoglycan for some bacteria
e. Ribosomes: small dot structures- cluster of proteins and nucleic acids (rRNA) that constructs proteins
in a cell; either attached to ER or free floating in the cell
f. Golgi apparatus: flattened stack of ovals; cellular organelle that modifies, stores, and routes cell
products
g. Desmosomes: proteins that anchor cells together; much like a staple is used on two papers.
h. Gap Junction: a channel for two animal cells to communicate (i.e.gab) with each other
i. Tight Junction: a barrier like substance that prevents cells from leaking (think about a bladder & what it holds)
j. Cilia: short hair-like structures from a cell and containing bundles of microtubules that move a cell
through its surroundings or move fluid over the cell's surface
k. Flagella: whip-like structure responsible for movement; much longer than cilia
l. Mitochondria: powerplant of cell- turns glucose into ATP; bean shaped; cristae folds to increased
surface area for the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation (ETC & chemiosmosis)
m. Central vacuole: large structure (bigger than nucleus) stores water to help hold plants up
n. Chloroplast: green disk structure responsible to turn solar energy into glucose (photosynthesis)
o. Vesicles: small packages that hold material taken into a cell or being released to outside of a cell
They allow movement of material within a cell. Microfilaments pull them as they walk on the
microtubules (inner life of a cell video).
p. Microfilaments: Two actin (protein molecules) twisted like a candy cane. Allow for tension bearing
activities within a cell (i.e. pulling vesicles around the cell)
q. Plasmodesmata – form of gap junction in plants… it is a channel that allows them to share materials
and/or communicate with each other
r. Peroxisomes – contain enzymes that oxidize certain molecules normally found in the cell, notably
fatty acids and amino acids. Those oxidation reactions produce hydrogen peroxide, which is the
basis of the name peroxisome.
8. Endomembrane system deals with mRNA sending its message from DNA (which is safely kept in the
nucleus) to a ribosome. As a protein is manufactured, it is stored inside the Rough ER. It then ‘buds’
off the Rough ER in the form of a vesicle that is pulled via microfilaments walking on microtubules to
the Golgi Apparatus. It is modified in the GA and the vesicle ‘buds’ off the GA as it eventually excreted
via is to be excreted exocytosis.
Both the mitochondria and chloroplast were once thought to be a prokaryotic organism (circular DNA
and ribosomes are found in their inner fluids. Both were thought to be taken into a cell – at different
times, of course—by endocytosis but not consumed. This is evident by their double membrane. It was a
win – win situation as protection was provided by the cell that ‘ate’ it and it supplied energy to the cellhence the name – endosymbiosis.
9. What are the principles of cell theory
- All living things are composed of cells, cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living
things (life legos), cells come from pre-existing cells
10. How should one look at a slide on the microscope at high power: set in on low power and find the
object, go to medium and then high keeping the organism in the center of the field of view, only use the fine
adjustment on high power. Lab practical??? Can you do this? Review microscope lab….
Cellular Respiration
1. formula is 6O2 + C6H12O6  6CO2 + 6 H2O + ATP
Opposite is photosynthesis
2. Cell respiration and fermentation both provide mechanisms for the production of ATP that enable
organisms to survive.
3. comparison chart
a. requires oxygen
b. Where do they occur
c. why do they occur
End products
Glycolysis
No
Cytoplasm
This is the first step of cellular
respiration (even though it is
anaerobic)
2 ATP net, 2 -3C pyruvate, and 2
NADH molecules
Fermentation
No
cytoplasm
To regenerate NAD + so glycolysis can
continue to produce 2 ATP’s
Lactic Acid: 2- 3 C lactic acid; used
to make food and cheese
Alcoholic: 2 – CO2, 2 – 2C alcohols
(beer and wine)
In addition to what is produced in
glycolysis
4. see chart above
Odds and ends:
Yeast and fermentation – what type aerobic or anaerobic? Anaerobic because do not need oxygen
How do muscle cramps develop? Build up of lactic acid during fermentation in muscles due to lack of O2
What foods are made from fermentation? Cheese, alcoholic beverages, breads, yogurt.
5. Comparison of Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, Electron transport chain, & fermentation (2 types): # ATP,
location, need for oxygen, produces carbon dioxide. See notes that where emailed home prior to the
cell respiration overview quiz 
Glycolysis
Cut and
Groom /
Bridge/
Transition
Krebs
# ATP
Location
2ATP
Cytoplasm
Need
OxygenAerobic
CO2
produced
NADH
produced
FADH2
produced
No
--Cyto into
matrix
No
2ATP
Mitochondria
matrix
No
Oxidative
Phosphorylation:
Electron transport
Chain &
chemiosmosis
28 -34 ATP
Mitochondrial
cristae
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
No
Yes- alcohol
yes
yes
Yes
No, it is used here
No, it is used here
no
no
yes
No, it is used here
------
6. See class notes
Fermentation
2 ATP
Yeast / Muscles
No