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Review Session #1 History, Approaches, Methods, Biological Influences, Learning, & Cognition AP Psychology Andover High School History & Approaches Question #1 Research in the area of evolutionary psychology might rely heavily on research from which of the following psychological schools of thought? A.Psychoanalytic B.Humanistic C.Behavioral D.Gestalt E.Biological E– Evolutionary Psychology necessarily involves discussions of genetics and how genes are passed from one generation to another. Biological psychologists are also involved in this area of research. History & ApproachesQuestion #2 Modern psychologists might criticize Freud’s original psychoanalytic theory for which of the following? A. Freud focused on mild to moderate mental illnesses and avoided patients with potentially serious problems. B. Psychoanalytic theory did not progress quickly because he experimental data needed to support the theories relied on slower research methods, such as longitudinal studies. C. The issues psychoanalysts focused on were intellectually interesting to philosophers and theorists but did not have practical applications for real world problems. D. Psychoanalytic theories and hypotheses were not falsifiable based on experimental data. E. Freud based the theory on extensive biological evidence, which was difficult for most psychologists to understand. D. Some of Freud’s ideas about the connection between personality and human behavior (such as the id, ego, and superego) were difficult to establish or falsify with empirical data. History & Approaches Question #3 Most experimental psychology research in the 1940s through 1960s was based on which psychological perspective? A.Structuralism B.Behaviorism C.Cognitive Neuroscience D.Developmental E.Psychoanalysis B. Although Freudian psychoanalysis was still relatively common in the psychological community, it was never commonly used by experimental psychologists (primarily because Freudian psychoanalysis was never well-suited to experimental validation). Behaviorist studies, such as operant conditioning studies involving rats or pigeons performing behaviors for positive reinforcement, dominated experimental psychology during this time period. History & Approaches Question #4 What was the major difference between Wilhelm Wundt’s ideas about thinking and behavior and the thinking of earlier philosophers? A.Wundt wrote and published his theories in his role as a professor at a recognized University. B.Earlier philosophers were almost exclusively concerned with human behavior, rather than thinking. C.Wundt’s philosophical technique involved thought experiments and hypotheses, which contrasted with earlier thinkers. D.Philosophers before Wundt’s time focused on questions of morality rather than explanations of thought processes. E.Wundt gathered empirical data in a laboratory using experimental methods, and based conclusions on this empirical data. E. The primary difference between Wundt and the earlier thinkers who investigated human thought and behavior was that Wundt tried to establish his theories with empirical evidence gathered in a laboratory setting. Methods- Question #5 Dr. Shiffrin theorizes that stress in children can be caused by excessive levels of homework. If she were to test this idea, what would be her dependent variable? A. The age of the students. B. The teachers the students have. C. The amount of homework assigned. D. The schools the students attend. E. The children’s stress levels. E – According to the hypothesis, the amount of stress children experience depends upon how much homework they are assigned; hence, stress is the dependent variable. The amount of homework assigned is the independent variable. The age, teachers, and schools of the students are all extraneous variables that would ideally be controlled for in an experiment. Methods- Question #6 If you were interested in getting an inside look at how teenagers behave when they go to the mall, what would be the best type of study to use? A. Lab experiment B. Naturalistic observation C. Field experiment D. Correlational student E. Content analysis B – In naturalistic observation, the researcher watches behavior unobtrusively so as not to influence it thus yielding a picture of the behavior that is ideally untainted by participant biases. Experiments, whether they take place in the lab or the field, have many advantages as do surveys but are typically unable to provide as honest a reflection of behavior. Content analysis is not used to study behavior. Methods- Question #7 In Milgram’s obedience study, the dependent variable was operationally defined by A. Whether the participant was assigned the role of teacher or learner B. How many times the participant went along with the incorrect answers of the group C. The highest level of shock the participant delivered D. The participant’s initial level of hostility toward the experimental confederate E. The number of times the participant questioned the experimenter’s directions. C – The dependent variable in Milgram’s obedience study was obedience, and it was measured by looking at how far the participant was willing to go in terms of shocking (remember, there really were no shocks) a person he/she had never met before just because he was asked to by the experimenter. Methods- Question #8 Dimitri invents a new way to assess personality that involves describing the images one sees in a carefully selected set of photographs of clouds. Which type of psychologist is most likely to find such an assessment useful? A. Humanistic B. Cognitive C. Behavioral D. Trait E. Psychoanalytic E – Dimitri’s cloud test is an example of a projective test. Similar to the TAT and Rorshach tests, it is likely based on the idea that what people project onto ambiguous stimuli provide insight into their personalities. Methods- Question #9 Correlations are typically graphed using a(n) A.Scatter Plot B.Histogram C.Box and Whiskers plot D.Frequency Distribution E.Line graph A – Correlations are typically graphed using a scatter plot, where one variable is plotted on each axis. Methods- Question #10 Arshia and Alain are assigned to observe a group of nursery school students to see how they negotiate sharing at the block table. Each independently codes the behavior of each student and then they compare their findings to make sure they agree. This process most directly shows a concern for A.External validity B.Generalizability C.Accuracy D.Reliablity E.Internal validity D – The reason to have the raters compare their ratings is to get a measure of the extent to which they agree or their inter-rater reliability. Even if the raters do agree, it is possible that their coding reflects a low level of validity or accuracy – in other words, they may agree but in fact be measuring something other than sharing. Methods- Question #11 Which study would pose the greatest challenge to the ethical guideline that participation in research be voluntary? A. A study in which high school participants were offered candy in return for filling out a survey about cafeteria food. B. An experiment in which sick, economically disadvantaged residents of federal housing projects were offered free medication in return for enrolling in an experimental drug trial. C. A laboratory experiment in which parents of preschool age children were asked to play with their children in a controlled environment while researchers videotaped the interaction. D. A case study of how a small group of mildly anxious people responded to cognitive-behavioral therapy. E. A survey of adults entering a large supermarket about their drug and alcohol use. B – Given that sick people need medication and that medication can be very expensive, the use of free medication as a carrot to tempt people into a drug trial may be unethical. People who need the medication may not feel free to refuse enrolling in the drug trial, and being in that drug trial could put them at risk of harm. Typically, small incentives (like candy) are not considered to pose a threat to informed consent. Methods- Question #12 Arvind compared the speed of two groups of rats running through a maze using a t test. Which p value would allow Arvind to conclude with the greatest degree of certainty that the groups of rats performed differently? A. .01 B. .05 C. .10 D. .50 E. .99 A – p stands for the probability that a result occurred by chance; thus, the lower the p value, the greater degree of certainty about one’s results. While .05 is the accepted cutoff for statistically significant results (a.k.a. results that are unlikely to have occurred due to chance), a p value of .01 allows even greater certainty that the results reveal an actual difference between groups. Methods- Question #13 Cynthia has a group of students take a creativity test. What statistical measure would be most useful to her if she wants to describe how the scores in the distribution compare to one another? A. Mean B. Mode C. Range D. Standard Deviation E. Median D - The standard deviation is essentially a measure of the average distance of all the scores in a distribution from the mean. The range is also a measure of the variability of scores, but a very rough measure that merely gives the difference between the highest and lowest value with no attention given to the other scores in the distribution. The mean, mode, and median are all measures of central tendency whose values only yield information about how best to categorize the midpoint of a distribution and no information about how the scores in the distribution vary from one another. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #14 A teratogen is most likely to influence the development of which of the following? A. Broca’s aphasia B. Down syndrome C. Alzheimer’s disease D. Fetal alcohol syndrome E. Split-brain patients D- Fetal alcohol syndrome is the only outcome listed that is likely to be influenced by a chemical that passes from the mother to a developing fetus and impacts development (in this case, alcohol). Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #15 A group of researchers selectively breed a group of rats for aggression. Which area of the rat’s brains might the researchers likely focus on when examining the relationship between aggressive behavior and brain anatomy? A. Brain stem B. Amygdala C. Thalamus D. Medulla E. Hippocampus B – The amygdala controls basic, primal emotions like aggression, so it is a likely structure for researchers to target for this kind of research. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #16 Which sentence most accurately describes the process of neural transmission? A. B. C. D. E. Neural messages jump the synaptic gap using a series of electrical impulses. Electricity is generated within the cell, triggering neurotransmitters to be released into the spaces between cells. Neurons work in combination with hormones to transmit chemical signals to the nuclei of neighboring neural cells. Chemical levels build up within the cell, triggering electrical transfer between adjacent neurons. Groups of neurons fire in sequence, creating neurotransmitters that are sent through the spinal cord to communicate with the rest of the body. B - Neural transmission is an electro-chemical process, involving an electrical charge that travels within a neuron and chemicals that pass between neurons across synaptic gaps. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #17 Which type of scan would provide a psychiatrist with the most information about whether a stroke damaged communication between the left and right hemisphere? A. PET B. MRI C. CAT D. EEG E. fMRI E - In order to investigate communication in the brain, the psychiatrist would need to use a scan that provides detailed information about which specific brain areas are active during specific tasks. The fMRI scan is most able to provide this kind of data. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #18 Antipsychotic drugs most directly impact which of the following biological systems? A. Hormonal system via the glands B. Emotional system via the amygdala C. Cognitive system via the thalamus D. Neural system via neurotransmitters E. Cerebral system via axons D – Antipsychotic drugs most directly impact emotions, thinking, and behavior through changing neurotransmitter levels or neurons’ abilities to absorb and use neurotransmitters. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #19 Wolfgang quickly grabbed his cell phone as it fell towards the floor. Which part of his nervous system most directly allowed him to perform this behavior? A. B. C. D. E. Somatic Limbic Parasympathetic Autonomic Sympathetic A - The somatic nervous system controls our voluntary, skeletal muscles, and is most responsible for this kind of voluntary muscle reaction. The other systems involved may also be activated during this situation, but it is the somatic nervous system that most directly controls this grabbing behavior. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #20 A person who suffers a stroke and can no longer see objects in their left field of vision might have suffered damage to which part of their brain? A. Left frontal lobe B. Central fissure C. Right frontal lobe D. Right occipital lobe E. Left occipital lobe D – Objects in our field of vision are normally detected on the right halves of our retinas. This visual information is carried via the optic nerve to our right occipital lobes, so damage in this area might leave us “blind” to objects in our left field of vision. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #21 Which of the following sentences accurately describes a difference between the left and right hemispheres? A. The right hemisphere silences the left hemisphere during creative tasks and the left hemisphere silences the right hemisphere during logical tasks. B. The left hemisphere contains the thalamus and the right hemisphere contains the hypothalamus. C. The left hemisphere is responsible for spoken language in most people. D. The right hemisphere is responsible for dream states in most people. E. The right hemisphere develops early in gestation before the left hemisphere develops during the third trimester. C - Few generalizations can be accurately made about differences between the hemispheres because both hemispheres are normally active during almost all cognitive tasks. One of the well established differences between the hemispheres is that the left hemisphere is primarily responsible for spoken language. Biological Bases of BehaviorQuestion #22 A drug that acts as an antagonist for acetylcholine would most likely have what effect? A. B. C. D. E. An increase in insomnia and daytime fatigue. Pupil dilation and arousal of the autonomic nervous system. Interference with muscle control Neurotransmitter release. Auditory hallucinations. C. One of the primary functions of acetylcholine is muscle movement, so a drug acts as an antagonist for this neurotransmitter could dramatically impact muscle control. Learning- Question #1 Young animals learn many behaviors from watching their mothers and imitating those behaviors. This kind of learning is known as… A.Instinctive learning B.Classical conditioning C.Instrumental learning D.Modeling E.Reproductive conditioning D– Modeling is another name for observational learning. Modeling involves exactly what is described in the question- watching another member of ones species perform a behavior and then attempting to copy it. Learning- Question #2 Ali became sick with the stomach flu shortly after eating a piece of fried eggplant at a party. Since then, Ali has avoided fried egg plant. What likely explains the rapid acquisition of this behavior? A. People have to develop a taste for eggplant B. Given the current emphasis on healthy food, many people are trying to reduce their consumption of fried foods. C. It is easier to develop an aversion to vegetables than to meat D. People are biologically predisposed to link unfamiliar tastes with nausea. E. Because the result of eating the eggplant was unpleasant, it is easy to learn to avoid it. D – Research has indicated that people and animals seem predisposed to link certain types of stimuli with certain kinds of consequences. As shown by Garcia and Koelling, novel tastes are easily associated with nausea but not with electric shock while loud noises and flashes of light are more easily associated with shock than with nausea. Learning- Question #3 Alfred’s sister Rosie is very serious when she practices her cello and often yells at him for interrupting her, which makes Alfred feel nervous. Alfred has recently started exhibiting signs of anxiety whenever he hears any string instrument. This situation best illustrates.. A.Generalization B.Instinctive drift C.Spontaneous recovery D.Secondary conditioning E.A biological predisposition A – Alfred has generalized his anxiety to the sound of his sister practicing cello to the sound of any string instrument. Generalization in this classical conditioning example is when on exhibits a conditioned response to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to the conditioned stimulus. In this case, the conditioned stimulus is the sound of his sister playing cello, and the response of fear or anxiety has generalized to occur to similar sounds. Learning- Question #4 Mr. Cohen wants to encourage his kids to clean up their rooms. Every time they do so, he takes them out for dinner. As time goes on, Mr. Cohen’s children clean their rooms increasingly less frequently. What does this situation demonstrate? A.The Premack Principle B.Latent learning C.Higher-order conditioning D.Discrimination E.Observational learning A – The Premack Principle essentially explains that one person’s reinforce may be another person’s punishment. While Mr. Cohen may view taking his children out for dinner as a treat for them, they may not see it the same way. Reinforcers and punishments are defined by the effects they have on behavior. Given that taking his kids out to dinner results in less of the desired behavior, that consequence is defined as a punishment. Learning- Question #5 Which of the following is the best example of negative reinforcement? A. A teacher praises a child for answering a question in class. B. A teacher keeps a student from recess after she has been disruptive during a lesson. C. A teacher brings bagels to celebrate Valentine’s Day. D. A teacher has a student wash all the classroom desks after he is caught writing on his desk. E. A teacher cancels a homework assignment after the whole class scores well on a test. E – Negative reinforcement is when something aversive (in this case a homework assignment) is removed in order to reinforce desired behavior (the strong performance on the test). A common mistake is to assume that the negative in negative reinforcement refers to punishment- the addition of something aversive. However, the definition of a reinforcer is something that makes a behavior more common: thus, the negative in this case refers to fact that the behavior is being reinforced through the removal of something unpleasant (negative reinforcement) as opposed to the addition of something pleasant (positive reinforcement). Learning- Question #6 Mr. Lopez wants his kindergarten students to come into class and go directly to the seats. Which type of reinforcement schedule would likely yield the most rapid acquisition of this new behavior? A. Fixed Ratio B. Fixed Interval C. Variable Ratio D. Variable Interval E. Continuous Reinforcement E - Typically, continuous reinforcement is most effective in teaching a new behavior because the consistent association of the reinforcer with the behavior will make the link easiest to learn. While a fixed ratio schedule of FR-1 would be equivalent to continuous reinforcement, the term fixed ratio is usually employed to refer to the practice of rewarding every x behaviors, where x is a larger number than 1. Learning- Question #7 At Central High School they ring a bell to end every class period. Sometimes, by mistake, they ring the bell in the middle of a class period and teachers find that many of their students get up to leave not realizing that only about half of the class time has gone by. The students have learned this behavior via A. Operant Conditioning B. Classical Conditioning C. Insight Learning D. Abstract Learning E. Observational Learning B - The ringing of the bell is a conditioned stimulus associated with the unconditioned stimulus of being dismissed from class. Leaving class is both the conditioned and unconditioned response. Learning- Question #8 Rescorla’s contingency model of classical conditioning modifies Pavlov’s original model by A. Describing the role of natural, inherent predispositions in facilitating certain connections B. Creating a standard apparatus in which to test the law of effect C. Suggesting the role of cognition in influencing how well a response is learned D. Showing how learning can occur in the absence of reinforcement E. Predicting a particular curve for spontaneous recovery C – Rescorla’s contingency model theorizes that learning will happen more quickly and effectively when a conditioned stimulus (CS) reliably predicts an unconditioned stimulus (US). This idea builds upon Pavlov’s contiguity model which proposed that conditioning was typically linked to the number of times a CS was paired with a US. Rescorla suggested that given the same number of pairings, acquisition would occur more quickly in the absence of additional presentations of the CS and/or US which would weaken the cognitive connection the learner would establish between the two. Memory -Question #9 A researcher investigating the effectiveness of different methods of memorizing lists is likely to be most interested in which of the following memory concepts? A.Implicit memory B.State-dependent memory C.Long-Term potentiation D.Linguistic Relativity Hypothesis E.Serial Position Effect E. The serial position effect describes the impact of the position of items on a list on recall. Items early in the list are likely to be remembered (primacy effect) and items last on a list or likely to be remembered (recency effect). Memory - Question #10 Why are recognition tasks usually easier than recall tasks? A.Memories retrieved through recognition are stored in long term memory which is easier to access B.Recognition involves more recent memories, while recall involves events that occurred father in the past C.The process of recognition involves matching an event to something already stored in memory D.The recall process takes place in more primitive, basic areas of the brain E.The recognition process relies on sensory memory, which quickly encodes sensory stimuli we encounter C - Recognition involves matching current stimuli to what we already have stored in memory, which is an easier process than recall. Memory - Question #11 Which of the following two memory-related concepts are most similar? A.Chunking and syntax B.Mood-congruent and state-dependent memory C.Prototypes and rehearsal D.Primacy effect and relearning effect E.Belief bias and availability heuristic B - Both mood-congruent and state dependent memory describe similar phenomena that impact the probability a memory will be recalled. Memory - Question #12 In the information processing model, encoding takes place between which steps in the model? A.Between semantic and episodic, and between episodic and procedural B.Between sensory and short term, and between short term and long term C.Between retrieval and recognition, and between recognition and recall D.Between retroactive and proactive, and between proactive and interference E.Between convergent and divergent, and between divergent and heuristic B- The three box model consists of sensory, short term, and long term memory. Memories are encoded from sensory to short term memory and from short term to long term memory. Memory Question #29 Compulsive gamblers frequently recall losing less money than is actually the case. Their memory failure best illustrates: A. Serial Position Effect B. Next-In-Line Effect C. Motivated Forgetting D. Source Amnesia E. Proactive Interference C – Motivated forgetting is a concept that arose in early theories of psychology, and many might better associate it with repressed memories. The essential idea is that the ability to recall a memory may be influenced by feelings, by a need to protect the self, or by distorted perception. Freud suggested that people frequently have imperfect or no memory recall of traumatic events or of things associated with unpleasant feelings. For example, a person is highly motivated to forget a doctor’s appointment if he fears the doctor. Memory Question #30 The next-in-line effect best illustrates: A. Long-Term Potentiation B. Source Amnesia C.Encoding Failure D.Automatic Processing E. Implicit Memory C – When you are so anxious about being “next-in-line” that you fail to remember what the person just before you has said (no STM or LTM), but you can remember what other people around you said in terms of “sensory (echoic) memory”. Memory Question #31 You witnessed a murder. Weeks later, you are called to view a police line up in which you are to pick out the murderer from a line up. Later you are called to the witness chair during the trial to tell what you saw. In the police lineup, you are using _______ while in the trial you are using ________. A.Recognition, Recall B.Recognition, Relearning C.Relearning, Recall D.Recall, Recognition E.Relearning, Recognition A – Recognition is how you respond to a sensory cue. You look at something and your mind looks to see if what you are seeing in front of you matches anything that has been stored. If you notice a match, you are recognizing the information. VS. Recall is a way that you obtain information from your memory without having a cue to prompt the response. You have to essentially draft the information without any assistance. Memory Question #32 Which of the following sequences represents progressively deeper levels of processing? A. Functional, Structural, Semantic B. Semantic, Phonemic, Structural C. Structural, Semantic, Phonemic D. Phonemic, Semantic, Structural E. Structural, Phonemic, Semantic E – Two forms of shallow processing: Structural (appearance/”looks like”) which is when we encode only the physical appearance of something (e.g. the typeface of a word or how letters look) and Phonemic (“sounds like”) which is when we encode the way the word sounds. Deep Processing: Semantic (meaning)which is when we encode the meaning of a word and make connections to words with similar meaning. Cognition- Question #13 Children who do not learn a primary language before adolescence typically have trouble becoming fluent in any language during the rest of their lives. This research finding most supports which theory of language acquisition? A. Overgeneralization B. Linguistic relativity hypothesis C. Semantic network hypothesis D. Nativist theory E. Divergent thinking D - The nativist theory of language acquisition predicts that there is a critical period of maturation during which human brains are “wired” to acquire language. If a child passes through this critical period without acquiring language, it will be difficult for that child to ever acquire language. Cognition- Question #14 Wolfgang Kohler’s research involving problem solving and primates provided valuable empirical evidence supporting which cognitive concept? A.Divergent thinking B.Prototypes C.Representativeness heuristic D.Algorithms E.Eidetic memory A- Evidence from Kohler’s studies support the idea that divergent thinking can occur in non-human primates (such as chimpanzees) and that divergent thinking involves steps such as experimentation and reflection. Cognition- Question #15 Which of the following terms is most likely to be used by biopsychologists when discussing how memories are stored? A.Sensory memory B.Long-term potentiation C.Availability heuristic D.Functional fixedness E.Information-Processing Model B – Long-Term Potentiation is the process of the strengthening of neural connections which bio-psychologists theorize result in the phenomenon of memory!