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Slide 1
PAX ROMANA
Major Carlos Rascon
Slide 2
SOURCES
Jones, The Art of War in the Western World,
pp. 34-45, 72-86
 Montrossm, War Through the Ages, pp. 7088
 Preston and Wise, Men in Arms, pp. 39-49
 Bradford, Julius Caesar, pp.113-164
 Blois, The Roman Army and Politics in the
First Century B.C., pp. 6-21

Slide 3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know and identify the changes made in the
Roman military organization after the Third
Punic War and the causes of these changes
 Know and describe the civil wars between
Caesar and Pompey, with emphasis on the
reasons for Caesar’s success militarily
 Comprehend and explain the power struggle
after the death of Caesar, with emphasis on
the Battle of Actium

Slide 4
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Know and recall the key changes in the
Roman military system from Actium to
Adrianople and the causes of these changes
 Comprehend and explain the concept of Pax
Romana

Slide 5
Slide 6
ROMAN MILITARY
CHANGES AFTER THIRD
PUNIC WAR
Legions shift to composition of Roman
and non-Roman citizens
– Scarce Recruits
– Voluntary enlistment replaced
compulsory
– Military becomes less popular with the
very rich
– Video 8min (Roman legions)
Slide 7

ROMAN MILITARY CHANGES
AFTER THIRD PUNIC WAR
Triarii, Principes and Hostati abolished in favor
of “Light” and “Heavy” troops
 Professional Army Emerges
 Rome’s key factor- Discipline
Slide 8
ROMAN MILITARY
CHANGES AFTER THIRD
PUNIC WAR
Enlistments and Loyalty
– Enlistments averaged 6 years (16 year
max)
– Soldiers swear allegiance to their
general over the state of Rome
– Proconsuls (governors of territories)
gained virtually unlimited power
– Head of Army less answerable to
senate
Slide 9
ROMAN MILITARY CHANGES
AFTER THIRD PUNIC WAR
Caius Marius
–Allowed proletarians (men with out
land) to join legion
–Improved training making full-time
soldiers
–Made the cohort his major tactical
unit (vice the maniple)
–Interval between cohorts
decreased, resembling a phalanx
–Ten Cohorts still made a Legion
Slide 10
JULIUS CAESAR

Greatest Roman political general
– Military Genius
– Quick, sure judgment
– Indomitable energy (Charisma)
– Personal interest in his men
– Willingness to under go every hardship his
soldiers endured
Slide 11
JULIUS CAESAR
– Age 40, set out to learn “Art of War”
– 61 - 60 B.C. - proconsul of Spain,
suppressed barbarian uprisings
– 60 B.C. - formed 1st Triumvirate
W/Pompey and Crassus
– 58 B.C. - Triumvirate appointed Caesar
proconsul of Gaul
– By 51 B.C. - expanded Roman power in
Gaul, quelled all revolts
Slide 12
JULIUS CAESAR

Caesar’s Legion
– Preceded by a Vanguard of cavalry
and heavy foot
– Main body plus baggage in center
– Rear guard disposed for immediate
action
– Light infantry flank guards
Slide 13
JULIUS CAESAR

The Civil War
– Crassus was killed in battle - 53 B.C.
– Pompey, jealous of Caesar, had Senate pass law
taking away Caesar’s political & Military power in
March of 49 B.C.
– Caesar then “Crossed the Rubicon” in Dec of 50 or
Jan of 49 B.C.
• Act of War (By law needed senate consent to cross
Rubicon (Italy north border) w/forces)
• Caesar had previously only fought barbarians, now he
would fight Roman legions
Slide 14
JULIUS CAESAR
Popular sympathy was with Caesar
 Pompey & Senate fled to Epitus (West
coast of modern Greece)
 Caesar was in Rome in less than two
months, master of all Italy
 It took Caesar 5 years to defeat Pompey
and his supporters

Slide 15
JULIUS CAESAR

Ilerda Campaign
– Initially two unsuccessful frontal assaults on
Ilerda
– Followed by harassment, marches,
countermarches, cutting off supplies
– Forces enemy into weak defensive position,
then refused battle
– Pursued and harassed enemy continually
cutting off supplies
– Again refused battle
Slide 16
JULIUS CAESAR

Ilerda Campaign
– Made rapid countermarch to cut off enemy
from retreat into Ebro defiles
– Another rapid countermarch cuts off faltering
enemy from obtaining water at Sigoris
– Cuts off foes from their last resort of regaining
the fortified camp at Ilerda
Slide 17
JULIUS CAESAR

Ilerda Campaign
– Gained unconditional surrender
– Gained respect by sparing Romans from
slaughter and for his expert generalship
– Offered 70,000 prisoners liberty and safe
escort to Rome if they immediately enlisted in
his ranks
Slide 18
JULIUS CAESAR

Dyrrhachium
– 49 B.C. - Caesar had 12 legions @ Brundisium to
seek out Pompey
– Sailed for Greece
• Ships were scarce, only 7 legions initially (violated
principle of mass?)
• Pompey controlled sea
• Mid-winter - Pompey less vigilant (surprise?)
– Avoided Hostile Fleet, landed @ Palaeste
– Ships returned for Mark Anthony & 20,000 men of
his army
Slide 19
JULIUS CAESAR

Apsus River
– Caesar & Pompey made contact
– Pompey superior #’s, but inferior Quality
– Neither wanted to take offensive
• Caesar - waiting for Anthony
• Pompey hoped his fleet would block Anthony, forcing
Caesar to yield
– Anthony landed north of Dyrrhachium
– Pompey failed at preventing join-up
– Pompey fell back to Dyrrhachium
Slide 20
JULIUS CAESAR

Apsus River
– Caesar sent three legions for supplies and
decided to contain Pompey
– Both generals built lines (embankments) facing
each other
• Caesar couldn’t totally blockade (Pompey controlled
sea)
• Pompey broke out along coast, then pursued Caesar for
three days
– Had Pompey pursued harder, history may have
been different
Slide 21
JULIUS CAESAR

Pharsalus
– Caesar regrouped in Thessaly with about 30,000
infantry & 1,000 cavalry
– Met Pompey with disadvantage in #’s (1:2 infantry,
1:3 or 4 cavalry) on plains of Pharsalus
– Pompey’s plan:
• Secure his right flank along Enipeus River
• Use superior cavalry to flank Caesar on his
right, sweep around and attack his rear
Slide 22
Slide 23
JULIUS CAESAR

Pharsalus
– Caesar grasped Pompey’s plan
• Brought up cavalry to face Pompey’s cavalry
• Took 3rd line from Infantry and formed 4th line behind
Cavalry (decisive point)
– Pompey left initiative
• Caesar launched counter attack; Pompey met with
Cavalry, Archers, Slingers; Caesar had 4th line attack;
4th line had such vigor Pompey’s cavalry retreated
Slide 24
Slide 25
JULIUS CAESAR

Pharsalus
– Infantry now fully engaged
– Caesar flanked Pompey on his left with 4th line
– Caesar ordered 3rd Line (reserves) into fight
(timely use of reserves)
– Pompey fled and his forces surrendered in the
hills after being surrounded
Slide 26
Slide 27
JULIUS CAESAR

Ruspina
– Africa, Oct 47 B.C., Caesar surrounded by superior
force near Ruspina
– Formed single line of cohorts in favor of protecting
flanks
– Single line was pushed together with cavalry in
gaps
– Faced alternating cohorts to rear forming two back
to back lines and pushed out
– Imaginative action salvaged defeat
Slide 28
JULIUS CAESAR
Further operations in Africa/Spain were
successful
 Caesar assassinated 15 March, 44 B.C.

Slide 29
BATTLE OF ACTIUM
Anthony and Cleopatra
ruled from Egypt ~200
ships
 Octavian Ruled from
Rome had ~200 ships
 Sea Battle conducted in
Ionian Sea
 Over 400 galleys and
80,000 men involved

Slide 30
BATTLE OF ACTIUM
Slide 31
BATTLE OF ACTIUM
Deserters informed Octavian
 Anthony’s Fleet sailed out
 Agrippa formed up seaward and waited for
the wind also
 Separation of the Squadrons
 Anthony and Cleopatra defeated and
betrayed, Anthony fled

Slide 32
BATTLE OF ACTIUM
Established Roman Navy as the premier
navy of the time
 Combined with army to secure frontiers and
to police Mediterranean
 Octavian reaches Alexandria in July, 30 B.C.
; Anthony and Cleopatra commit suicide
 Octavian takes the title of Caesar Augustus

Slide 33
PAX ROMANA
The period from Caesar Augustus (27 B.C.)
to the battle of Adrianople (378 A.D.)
 Longest period of
peace Roman empire
had experienced
 The Empire

– Internally Pacified
– Secure Frontiers
Slide 34
PAX ROMANA
13 B.C. Augustus reduced the army of the
Roman Empire to 25 Legions (about
300,000 soldiers)
 In 6 A.D. he established a permanent
retirement fund
 Encouraged retired soldiers to settle in the
provinces near their former legion
 16 year tours (later 20 year enlistments)

Slide 35
PAX ROMANA
Defensively Orientated
 Cavalry
 War Engines
– By 4th Century 10 Catapults and 60
Ballistae were assigned to each legion
– This is one of the highest rations of “guns”
to soldiers in history

Slide 36
DECLINE OF ROME
Riot accelerated by decline in farming
 The small farms

– Free peasants were forced to become coloni
– Proved insufficient, barbarians invited to work
Exhaustion of the soil
 Lack of Agriculture

– More people drifted into the cities
– Unemployment
Slide 37
DECLINE OF ROME
Professional politicians
 Reduced discipline and training
 Increasing lack of confidence between
commander and troops
 Sending units from one portion of the frontier
to reinforce units engaged elsewhere

Slide 38
THE BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE

The Visigoths
– Originally friendly to the empire
– The local Roman officials allowed the Visigoths
to retain their weapons in return for certain
“favors”
– For over a year the Roman officials abused the
Goths
The Emperor Valens
 Legion weakened by increasing number of
light foot and cavalry

Slide 39
Slide 40
THE BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE
Valens came upon the Gothsen camp
 He drew up his army
 Believing that all the enemy were inside the
Laager, he attacked

Slide 41
THE BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE
The Bulk of the Gothic Horsemen were
foraging
 As the battle raged, the Gothic horsemen
charged down on the Roman left
 The Roman cavalry disintegrated quickly
 The Roman right fled, and the infantry was
slaughtered

Slide 42
Valens
and 40,000
infantry
annihilated
THE
BATTLE
OF ADRIANOPLE
Battle
of Adrianople
signified the end of the
Roman military tradition
Slide 43
THE BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE
Collapse of Rome
 A revolution in tactics

– Cavalry was now the chief arm
– Light Infantry would prepare and support the
attack by their fire
– Heavy infantry
• Base for defense
• Offense - ready reserve
Slide 44
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Their were many changes to the Roman
military after the Third Punic War
 Caesar won the civil wars against Pompey
 Pax Romana was the longest period of
peace in Rome, during this period the army
was oriented to defense
 Rome divides

Slide 45
QUESTIONS?