Download Week 5 Assignment: Three Developmental Theories Ashford

Week 5 Assignment: Three Developmental Theories
Ashford University
PSY 104
Three Developmental Theories
The field of human development studies covers a wide range of human behaviors.
There is research in this field right from the commencement of psychology and it is needed
to comprehend the total potential of humans and decipher the thought process, learning
and behavior. Revered as the father of psychodynamics, Sigmund Freud was a pioneer in
the study of development. He carried out studies about the way the mind works and made
the child development study an important aspect of psychology. He identified various
factors that impacted childhood growth and experience (DeVitis, 2011).
The various stage theories are very useful in the study of the development of
human psychology. In each of the theories, there is substantial and clear logical explanation
about the human behavior traits. There is however an element of question when it comes
to extrapolating the generalist theory on the characteristics of human behavior to one
particular individual. The objective of this paper is to explain and compare and contrast the
evolutionary/sociobiological theories, the learning theory and the psychoanalytical theory.
The differentiating aspects and the similarities will be highlighted with regard to child
development. (Savania, & all).
The psychoanalytical theory was put forth by the well-known psychologist Sigmund
Freud. Ego and the subconscious are the core concepts in this theory. Sigmund Freud
pointed out that every action and the behavior are governed by the ego and the
subconscious. The Learning theory introduced by Ivan Pavlov, B.F. Skinner and John B.
Watson is based on the idea that the behavior is controlled and formed by the observation.
The theory also claimed that an individual’s behavior can be modified by a process of
conditioning (Smith, 2010). Bowlby’s Attachment theory is the basis for the
evolutionary/Sociobiological theory and E.O. Wilson added points to the theory of survival
put forward by Charles Darwin (Zimmerman, 2009).
What is needed is a clear picture of
the theories and the influence that each has on an individual’s emotions and psychological
development. The three theories as mentioned above are the learning theory,
psychoanalytical theory and the evolutionary/Sociobiological theory. Before going in
details about the similarities and the differences in all these theories, there is a need to
understand the underlying theory first (Crawford, 2008).
Freud believed that there is a suppression of emotions in the event of a traumatic
incident. “Sigmund Freud is the person who framed the psychoanalytical theory. Freud
conducted a series of tests on his patients ailing from mental disorders. He concluded that
the behavior gets forged as a result of the influencing events in childhood and the
unfulfilled desires at the subconscious level. His theory explains the development as a
stepwise growth of psychosexual stages. Freud stated that the interference in any of the
stages left a hard impression on the personality and the behavior.” (DeVitis, 2011). “The
theory says that in the initial stage of growth, the three hypothetical concepts of the
personality are formed called the id, the ego and the superego. The behavior of infants is
governed by the id, which is driven by instincts and has a satisfying effect if pleasure is
obtained. There is disassociation from the things around happen when this feeling of
satisfaction is delayed, for instance when an infant has to wait for food. A child aged about
five or six develops a value system or the conscience that governs the behavior with the
socially accepted ‘should’ and ‘should not’s’. When the superego is not gratified or the
expectations are not met, the child may get nervous or even guilty. From the first year of
growth, the ego which is the conscious self takes shape and relies on the reality of principle.
The objective of the ego is to determine means of satiating the id and the superego in the
most feasible manner.” The psychoanalytical theory is concerned with the ego ID of the
consciousness and sub-consciousness of the person. Freud belief is that the psychosexual
development wherein the male and the female of a species learn by sexuality influences the
behavior. One of his famous beliefs is that “boys have sexual drive towards their mothers
and are belligerent towards their fathers who are seen as threats. This phenomenon was
named as the Oedipus complex by Freud (DeVitis, 2011).
According to Freud, girls also have an inner feeling of craving to possess a penis due
to the power they associated with male (DeVitis, 2011). “As the adults get into maturity
they bury their sexual impulses in order to merge in with the society. On further studies on
single child, Freud concluded that children without siblings were most likely to develop
issues about identity (DeVitis, 2011). From the period of birth to expiration, human beings
both men and women undergo drastic psychosexual growth. The need to stay in society
overpowers their strong sexual instincts in their adulthood when they identify and learn
through their sexuality. The sample set considered by Freud for his research study was not
inclusive of a set of average children but was a roster of upper-middle-class adults
predominantly women who came to him for therapy (DeVitis, 2011). All his theories on
normal development were based on these studies. Freud did not consider the influences on
the sexual drives and the influence on the overall personality. This includes the influences
of the society and the culture and is being ardently highlighted upon by the followers of
Freud like Erik Erikson.”
Erik Erikson built up his theory keeping Freud’s as the base and took the theory of
development to another dimension. He considered the society as an entity and the
influence it has on the development of an individual. Erikson also believed that apart from
the Ego identity there is another motivator for behavior and the responses. He thought it to
be a sense of competence. This theory put forth by Erikson can be segmented into eight
phases (Mossler, 2011).
Stage one – birth to 18 months. Erikson states that the conflicts of trust versus mistrust and
the fundamental concept of hope and motivation are developed in this phase. He called this
the oral sensory phase. As the child in this stage understands and learns by grasping things
and putting it in his or her mouth it is rightly called oral sensory phase. The infant also
learns what to trust and what not to trust from the actions of the person tending to him or
her. The focus of the theory in this phase is on the rapport that the infant develops with the
parent and the learning of trust and mistrust (Mossler, 2011).
Stage two – initial phase of the childhood that is eighteen months to thirty six
months. In this stage Erikson describes the concept of self-direction versus shame
highlighting the importance of self-control and will power with toughness. In this phase the
infant develops the most important skills that are needed in life. They learn to find food and
consume, communicate and roll over, sit and stand, crawl, walking and master the motors
skills. With the control of motor skills, we start with the toilet training. This phase presents
a chance to develop self-esteem and autonomy. We have complete control of our bodies
and over time would have gained specific skills by trial and error. Most importantly in this
period often called the ‘terrible twos’, infants learn to object saying ‘no’. This may not be
exactly what the parents want but it is an assertion on the will power of the child. This
phase is when we are equally susceptible. In the learning curve, failure and shame in failure
of toilet training or other similar tasks may lead to humiliation and mistrust about the
abilities of the self. It may even lead to low self-esteem problems. The major relationships
are obviously with the parents in this phase (Mossler, 2011).
Stage three – the time of play, ages of three to five. Erikson states that in the phase
the focus is on the recognition of initiative versus feeling of guilt. In this phase a child will
start making up stories and be playful and at the same time enjoy trying out new things by
self. This highlights the significance of initiative versus guilt. A child may perform some
tasks with ease while others with difficulty. The inability to do something may bring up the
feeling of guilt in the child (Mossler, 2011).
Stage four – the period of schooling, years six to twelve. Erikson focuses on the
concept of industry versus inferiority and highlights the power of procedure and
competency. In school there is much to learn from the teachers and peers and this affects
the industry of a child. The interactions with the peers and the results of actions influence
the self-esteem of a child, bringing inferiority complex. The parents are not as relevant and
instrumental in this phase as they were in the earlier three phases. The peers and the
society are more influential here. Though the relationship with the parents is important it
does not become the complete point of attention for the child (Mossler, 2011).
Stage five – the period of adolescence from the years thirteen to eighteen. The point
of focus in this phase is identity versus role clarification with importance on devotion and
fidelity. In the phases discussed prior to this one, Erikson places importance on the
learning aspect based on the impact of people’s actions like care or no care. In the final
phases Erikson describes what can be done by us. In the fifth phase, Erikson talks about the
teenage years where there is interest to grow into adults and there is more will power and
a need to understand and think about the self. In this process of finding answers, we tend to
shift priority in relationships like from parents to friends. The foremost thing to do is to
form a philosophy in life and the thought process must be guided by the ideals that are
more realistic and clear. Due to lack of experience, ideals are readily substituted for
experience (Mossler, 2011).
Stage six – this is the young adult years between the age eighteen and thirty five.
Erikson talks about the conflicts of closeness and commonality with importance on love
and belongingness. In the starting of the adult phase, there is a tendency to take solace in
friendship and love. There is the development of many gratifying relationships with friends
and marriage. Then the family comes in to picture. There is a shift that’s happening in this
with many postponing starting their families till their late thirties. If there are no hassles
and there is a smooth transition in this phase, then there can be true enjoyment of
intimacy. The opposite response to this might be isolation and separation from others. The
absence of any satisfying relationship can lead to being aloof and create sense of
superiority over others. The most important relationships are forged with the spouse and
close friends (Mossler, 2011).
Stage seven – is the intermediate adulthood which is the age group thirty five to fifty
five or sixty five. The focus here is on the generativists versus self-absorption or stagnation
tendencies. Caring and results are also crucial in this phase. Erikson states that it is in this
phase when we are deeply involved in activities that are resourceful and purposeful and
related to the family. There is taking up of responsibility in the middle adulthood phase
that we have yearned for a long time.
The most important function is to preserve the culture and pass on the desirable
values from one generation to another through the family system and create a conducive
environment. Erikson uses the term ‘generativists’ to refer to those providing care for
others around them and involved in the production of products that add to the growth of
the society. In this phase there is trepidation towards idleness and purposelessness. The
mid-life crisis strikes many when they face situations where their children leave the house
or the course and objectives of a relationship get altered. They then fight it out to discover a
new meaning and reason to go on. The failure to prevail and come out of this crisis could
very well lead to self-absorption and stagnation. The places where there is interaction with
the important relationships are the family, the community and the place of work (Mossler,
2011).
Stage eight - The final phase as per the Erikson psychosocial development theory is
the late adulthood phase which is fifty five or sixty five years of age to the death. Erikson
associates wisdom to the personality in this phase along with importance to the conflicts of
integrity and desperation. According to him, almost all the years of the life is geared
towards providing for self in the middle adulthood and the late adulthood is the
recuperation stage from all that. By the term integrity, Erikson refers to the retrospection
on life and getting a sense of meaning and happiness with the way all the years were spent.
Wisdom tells us in this phase that there is much more that we have not come across in the
world and there is a detachment that comes which makes us see death as the endpoint of
life.
Contrary to this, many old adults may feel totally in despair due to their experiences
in life and the incidents they felt were failures. When they find it difficult to come to terms
with what has happened in their life, they start fearing death and question “was all the
efforts worth it finally?” what matters in the end is the relationship with humanity that we
shared and not that with the family, peers, colleagues or spouses. The life a person has lived
is defined by all the relationships that he ever had (Mossler, 2011).
The learning theory is about behavior and the way they are forged or broken. The
theories on child development like the Learning theory and the Behavioral theory are
concerned with the impact of the external influences on the behavior. These theories are
based on the works of John B. Watson, Ivan Pavlov and B.F. Skinner (Catania, & all, 2009). .
Observable behaviors are only considered in this theory. The response to recognitions,
pain, stimuli and the reinforcement is often noted as development. There is a further
elucidation on the classical conditioning and operant conditioning in the articles on the
behavioral theories (Gronhoj, & Thogersen, 2012). The concepts described in this theory
are classical conditioning, social interaction based learning and operant conditioning. The
classical conditioning was illustrated by Ivan Pavlov where he trained a dog to salivate on
the sight of a food bowl (Catania, & all, 2009). Another illustration is when a child is about
to touch fire, if he was negatively reinforced with a pop, the child would always relate a pop
with fire. The specification of a particular response to stimuli is applicable even in operant
conditioning and social learning of behavior. As per the theories there is a detailed study on
the responses to specific behaviors. For instance, a child would learn that it would have to
cry in order to be picked up when it was picked up once when crying. I find this theory to
be highly applicable as I relate it with all the behavior acquired since birth and to extract a
behavior that is desired. The similarity between this theory and that of Freud and Erikson
is that the basis is the behavior and how it can be altered or acquired. Both Freud’s and
Erikson’s theories are concerned with the segmentation of life and the handling of the
subconscious and the learning involved in each phase. This theory talks about what is being
taught in each of the stages. The psychoanalytic theory throws light on the impact on
development in each phase of life while the learning theory highlights the learning involved
in each. It is not feasible to segment into phases as is in Erikson’s theory but it gives the
essence of the overall learning in each human.
The
final
theory
that
will
be
covered
in
this
thesis
is
the
evolutionary/sociobiological theory of development. This theory postulated by E.O. Wilson
deals with the basis of behavior that are evolutionary and biological in nature. Highly
inspired by Darwin’s evolution model, this theory relies on the studies on anthropology,
genetics, ecological systems, zoology, and the psychology involved in evolution to address
the questions about adaptability and survival instincts, the individual and a species’
behavior traits and value.” Darwin stated that we constantly evolve to survive in the world
(Zimmerman, 2009).
Each theory is unique in its own way and is very crucial to the learning. The set of
behaviors is acquired through learning. With the understanding and implementation of the
concepts learnt from these theories, an individual can get more knowledgeable. In any
living organism, the learning is reflected in the actions as it is change in the nervous
functioning or the cognition. This functionality allows for the interpretation of the
information received and learning is the outcome of this task and the incorporation of the
information in the system.
References
Catania, A., C., & Laties, V., G. (1999). Pavlov and Skinner: Two lives in science (an
introduction to B. F. Skinner's "some responses to the stimulus 'Pavlov'"). Journal of the
Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 72(3), 455-61. Retrievedfrom Research Library.
(Document ID: 47417422).
Crawford, C., & Krebs, D. (EDS.) (2008) Foundations of evolutionary psychology New York:
Lawrence Erlbaum viii + 521 pp. ISBN:
DeVitis, J. (2011). Freud and education Choice, 48(10), 1972. Retrieved from Research
Library. (Document ID: 2368998051).
Gronhoj, A., & Thogersen, J. (2012). Action speaks louder than words: The effect of personal
attitudes and family norms on adolescents' pro-environmental behavior. Journal of Economic
Psychology, 33(1), 292. Retrieved from ABI/Inform Global. (Document ID: 2549314351).
Mossler, R., 2011. Child & Adolescent Development. San Diego, CA: Bridgepoint.
Savania, K., Kumar, S., Naidu, N., & Dweck, C. (2011). Beliefs About Emotional Residue: The
Idea That Emotions Leave a Trace in the Physical Environment. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 101(4), 684. Retrieved from ABI/Inform Global. (Document ID:
2490049031).
Smith, N., (2010). Foundations of evolutionary psychology The Psychological Record, 60(1),
177- 179. Retrieved from Research Library. (Document ID: 2141078641).
Zimmerman, W., (2009).Evolution for everyone: How Darwin’s theory can Change the Way
We Think about Our Lives, The Quarterly Review of Biology, 84(1), 96. Retrieved from
Research Library. (Document ID: 1664817301).
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