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Chapter 16: Behaviour Lesson Objectives: (a) explain the advantages to organisms of innate behaviour; (b) describe escape reflexes, taxes and kineses as examples of genetically-determined innate behaviours; The study of behaviour – ethology! Tinbergen’s experiment: http://www.sumanasinc.com/webcontent/animations/content/behaviors.html Behaviour is action that alters the relationship between an organism and its environment Nikolaas (Niko) Tinbergen Dutch zoologist 1907-1988 Received Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1973 with von Frisch and Lorenz for discoveries concerning organisation and elicitation of individual and social behaviour patterns in animals! The study of behaviour – ethology and psychology! Ethologists such as Tinbergen study the natural behaviour of animals in their natural environments They are interested in the evolutionary basis of behaviour and tend to focus on simple, inherited behaviour patterns Psychologists carry out experiments in the lab. They are interested in how animals learn new patterns of behaviour This often focuses on the differences between behaviour patterns of different animal species (comparative psychology) Behaviouralism = study of how rewards and punishments could affect responses to different stimuli What causes behaviour? Behavior may occur as a result of … • an external stimulus (e.g., sight of a predator) • internal stimulus (e.g., hunger) • or, more often, a mixture of the two (e.g., mating behavior) Bird of Paradise mating ritual The great debate … Nature vs Nurture? Behaviour is largely controlled by genes Instinctive Innate (in-built) Learned Depends upon experiences Alex – the African Grey Parrot Owned by Irene Pepperberg (researcher) for 30 years Vocabulary of over 100 words Could ‘identify 50 objects, 7 colours, 5 shapes, quantities up to and including 6 and a zero-like concept’ Pepperberg said that the talking parrot had, "the emotional equivalent of a 2 year-old child and intellectual equivalent of a 5 year-old." http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VZ2j1jOwAYU Innate (instinctive) behaviour ‘a pattern of inherited, pre-set behaviour that does not require learning or practice’ We assume the animal does not ‘know’ what to do (ie: doesn’t think about it and make decisions) – the pattern of behaviour is due to the ‘hard-wiring’ of its nervous system which is inherited Inherited behaviour evolved in the same way as any other characteristic (eg: colour) evolved These behaviours are ‘stereotyped’ (all performed in the same way each time) A salamander raised away from water until long after its siblings begin swimming successfully will swim every bit as well as they the very first time it is placed in the water Instinct … Instincts are complex behavior patterns which, like reflexes, are inborn They are: rather inflexible valuable at adapting the animal to its environment So instincts are inherited just as the structure of tissues and organs is • The African peach-faced lovebird carries nesting materials to the nesting site by tucking them in its feathers. • Its close relative, the Fischer's lovebird, uses its beak to transport nesting materials. • The two species can hybridize. • When they do so, the offspring succeed only in carrying nesting material in their beaks. Nevertheless, they invariably go through the motions of trying to tuck the materials in their feathers first Reflex actions Rapid, automatic responses to stimuli In humans – does not involve conscious thought (in animals it is impossible to tell if they have conscious thought!) Can be rapid and brief behaviour patterns (blinking = startle reflex) or longer term (standing still) APs pass along a reflex arc: 1. Receptor picks up information from stimulus 2. APs travel to brain or spinal cord – to intermediate neurone 3. APs travel via motor neurone to an effector Modifying stereotyped (innate) behaviour by experience Stereotyped = always carried out in a characteristic way with similar sequences and patterns of movement Stereotyped behaviour is largely innate (but not necessarily so) Eg: Larus articilla (laughing gulls) chick feeding Basis of begging for food by grasping parent’s beak is INNATE (when they are newlyhatched they are not so good at it!) REFINEMENT – by learning they get better, they rotate their heads after opening their beaks allowing them to grab the parent’s beak Examples of innate behaviour within organisms Escape reflex Escape reflex depending on stimuli Kineses Woodlice and choice chambers mini practical!!! Taxes Nematode responding to light Phototaxis in Daphnia woo hoo Learning Lesson Objectives: To outline the methods and conclusions of classic experiments to investigate the nature of learned behaviour Simple learned responses Habituation = a reduction in a previously-displayed response when no reward or punishment follows Eg: make an unusual sound and a dog will turn towards it If the stimulus is given repeatedly and nothing either pleasant or unpleasant happens to the dog, it will soon cease to respond. This is not due to fatigue or sensory adaptation – it is learned! It is long lasting (up to months between stimuli) Simple learned responses Sensitisation = an increase in the response to an innocuous stimulus when that stimulus occurs after a punishing stimulus Eg: When the siphon of the sea slug Aplysia is gently touched, the animal withdraws its gill for a brief period. However, if preceded by an electrical shock to its tail, the same gentle touch to the siphon will elicit a longer period of withdrawal The sensitization response to a single shock (blue bar) dies out after about an hour, and returns to baseline after a day (yellow) SHORT TERM MEMORY! Learned behaviours EVERY ANIMAL THAT HAS EVER BEEN STUDIED HAS SHOWN AT LEAST SOME ABILITY TO LEARN Learning = a change in behaviour as the result of experience = a process which manifests itself by adaptive changes in individual behaviour as a result of experience Memory is an important part of learning! Learned behaviours Nereis pelagica (marine clamworm) – lives in burrows, stretching out tentacles to trap food If a shadow passes over – quickly withdraws into burrow Repeated shadows – stops responding to it (habituation) Learned behaviours – Pavlov’s Dogs Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936) Russian Psychologist First person to describe classical conditioning •The conditioned response is probably the simplest form of learned behavior. It is a response that — as a result of experience — comes to be caused by a stimulus different from the one that originally triggered it Conditioning bees Honeybees can be conditioned to seek food on a piece of blue cardboard By offering other colors to a blue-conditioned bee, Karl von Frisch found that honeybees can discriminate between yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and UV •After a period of feeding from a dish placed on blue cardboard, the bees return to an empty dish on a clean blue card. They are able to distinguish the blue card from others of varying shades of gray Other types of conditioning Pavlov's dogs were restrained and the response being conditioned (salivation) was innate. But the principles of conditioning can also be used to train animals to perform tasks that are not innate In these cases, the animal is placed in a setting where it can move about and engage in different activities. Other types of conditioning • The experimenter chooses to reward only one behaviour, e.g., turning to the left. • By first rewarding (e.g., with a pellet of food) even the slightest movement to the left and then only more complete turns, a skilled experimenter can — in about 2 minutes — train a naive pigeon to make a complete turn. • A little more work and the pigeon will pace out a figure eight. Such training is known as instrumental conditioning or operant conditioning • The latter term was coined by B. F. Skinner, whose skill with the technique enabled him to train pigeons to play pingpong and even a toy piano! Why bother? Classical conditioning and operant conditioning are both examples of ASSOCIATIVE LEARNING (the animal LEARNS to associate a stimulus/action with a reward, the reinforcer) This may increase the chance of an animal’s survival and reproductive success Eg: an insect eating bird eats a wasp BAD! So … yellow and black = best not tasted! Kohler Problem solving http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ySMh 1mBi3cI&feature=related Pigeon http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mDnt bGRPeEU After trial and error, Sultan was able to link two rods together and use them to get a banana CAREFUL – anecdotes – not under the rigours of Scientific enquiry