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Figure 15.1
The
Chromosomal
Basis
Chapter 15:
of Inheritance
Mendel’s “hereditary
factors” were purely
abstract when first
proposed. Today
we can show that
the factors—
genes—are located
in specific places or
loci on
chromosomes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Morgan’s Experimental Evidence:
Scientific Inquiry
• The first solid evidence associating a specific gene with a
specific chromosome came from Thomas Hunt Morgan, an
embryologist
• For his work, Morgan chose to study Drosophila
melanogaster, a common species of fruit fly
• Morgan’s experiments provided convincing evidence that
chromosomes are the location of Mendel’s heritable factors
• Several characteristics make fruit flies a convenient
organism for genetic studies
• They produce many offspring
• A generation can be bred every two weeks
• They have only four pairs of chromosomes
2
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Figure 15.3
Morgan noted wild type, or normal, phenotypes that were
common in the fly populations
Traits alternative to the wild type are called mutant
phenotypes
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Correlating Behavior of a Gene’s Alleles with
Behavior of a Chromosome Pair
 In one experiment, Morgan mated male flies with
white eyes (mutant) with female flies with red eyes
(wild type)
 The F1 generation all had red eyes
 The F2 generation showed a 3:1 red to white eye
ratio, but only males had white eyes
 Morgan determined that the white-eyed mutant
allele must be located on the X chromosome
 Morgan’s finding supported the chromosome
theory of inheritance
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.4
Experiment
Conclusion
P
Generation
P
Generation
F1
Generation
Results
F2
Generation
X
X
w+
w+
All offspring
had red eyes.
w
Eggs
F1
Generation
Sperm
w+
w+
Eggs
F2
Generation
w+
w
w+
Sperm
w+
w+
w+
w+
w
w
w+
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
w
X
Y
w
The Chromosomal Basis of Sex
• In humans and other mammals, there are two varieties
of sex chromosomes: a larger X chromosome and a
smaller Y chromosome
• Only the ends of the Y chromosome have regions that
are homologous with corresponding regions of the X
chromosome
• The SRY gene on the Y chromosome codes for a
protein that directs the development of male anatomical
features
• X chromosome have genes for many characters
unrelated to sex, whereas the Y chromosome mainly
encodes genes related to sex determination
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.5
Females are XX, and males are XY
Each ovum contains an X chromosome, while a
sperm may contain either an X or a Y chromosome
X
Y
Other animals have different methods of sex
determination
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.6
44 +
XY
44 +
XX
Parents
22 +
X
22 +
X
+
or 22
Y
Sperm
44 +
XX
Egg
or
44 +
XY
Zygotes (offspring)
(a) The X-Y system
22 +
XX
(b) The X-0 system
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
22 +
X
76 +
ZW
76 +
ZZ
(c) The Z-W system
32
(Diploid)
16
(Haploid)
(d) The haplo-diploid system
• A gene that is located on either sex chromosome is called
a sex-linked gene
• Genes on the Y chromosome are called Y-linked genes;
there are few of these (ex.: hair on the pinnae of the ear)
• Genes on the X chromosome are called X-linked genes
• X-linked genes follow specific patterns of inheritance
• For a recessive X-linked trait to be expressed
• A female needs two copies of the allele (homozygous)
• A male needs only one copy of the allele (hemizygous)
• X-linked recessive disorders are much more common in
males than in females
• Some disorders caused by recessive alleles on the X
chromosome in humans. Example include Color
blindness (mostly X-linked), Duchenne muscular
dystrophy, and Hemophilia
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.7
XNXN
Xn
XnY
Y
Eggs XN
XNXn XNY
XN
XNXn XNY
Sperm
(a)
XNXn
XN
Y
Eggs XN XNXN XNY
Xn
(b)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
XNXn
XNY
Sperm
Xn
XnY
Y
Eggs XN XNXn XNY
XNXn XnY
Xn
(c)
XnXn XnY
Sperm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
X Inactivation in Female Mammals
• In mammalian females, one of the two X chromosomes in
each cell is randomly inactivated during embryonic
development
• The inactive X condenses into a Barr body
• If a female is heterozygous for a particular gene located on
the X chromosome, she will be a mosaic for that character
• As a consequence, females consist of a mosaic of 2 types of
alleles-- some with active paternal X chromosomes and some
with active maternal X chromosomes
• After an X chromosome is inactivated in a particular cell, all
mitotic descendants will have the same inactive X.
• X inactivation involves attachment of methyl groups to
cytosine nucleotides on the X that will become the Barr body
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.8
X chromosomes
Allele for
orange fur
Early embryo:
Two cell
populations
in adult cat:
Active X
Allele for
black fur
Cell division and
X chromosome
inactivation
Black fur
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Active X
Inactive
X
Orange fur
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 15.3: Linked genes tend to be inherited
together because they are located near each
other on the same chromosome
 Each chromosome has hundreds or thousands of
genes (except the Y chromosome)
 Genes located on the same chromosome that tend
to be inherited together are called linked genes
 Morgan did other experiments with fruit flies to see
how linkage affects inheritance of two characters
 Morgan crossed flies that differed in traits of body
color and wing size
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.9
Experiment
P Generation
(homozygous)
Wild type (gray
body, normal wings)
Double mutant
(black body, vestigial wings)
b+ b+ vg+ vg+
b b vg vg
F1 dihybrid testcross
Wild-type F1 dihybrid
(gray body, normal wings)
Homozygous
recessive (black
body, vestigial wings)
b+ b vg+ vg
b b vg vg
Testcross
offspring
Eggs b+ vg+
b vg
Wild type
Black(gray-normal) vestigial
b+ vg
b vg+
Grayvestigial
Blacknormal
b vg
Sperm
b+ b vg+ vg
PREDICTED RATIOS
Genes on different
chromosomes:
Genes on the same
chromosome:
Results
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
b b vg vg b+ b vg vg b b vg+ vg
1
:
1
:
1
:
1
1
:
1
:
0
:
0
965
:
944
:
206
:
185
 Morgan found that body color and wing size are usually
inherited together in specific combinations (parental
phenotypes)
 He noted that these genes do not assort independently, and
reasoned that they were on the same chromosome
• Note, however, that nonparental phenotypes were also
produced
• Understanding this result involves exploring genetic
recombination, the production of offspring with combinations
of traits differing from either parent
• Offspring with a phenotype matching one of the parental
phenotypes are called parental types
• Offspring with nonparental phenotypes (new combinations of
traits) are called recombinant types, or recombinants
• A 50% frequency of recombination is observed for any two
genes on different chromosomes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Recombination of Linked Genes: Crossing Over
 Morgan discovered that genes can be linked, but
the linkage was incomplete, because some
recombinant phenotypes were observed
 He proposed that some process must occasionally
break the physical connection between genes on
the same chromosome
 That mechanism was the crossing over of
homologous chromosomes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.10a
P generation (homozygous)
Wild type (gray body,
normal wings)
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
Wild-type F1
dihybrid (gray body,
normal wings)
b+ vg+
b vg
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Double mutant (black body,
vestigial wings)
Figure 15.10b
F1 dihybrid testcross +
b vg+
Wild-type F1
dihybrid
b vg
(gray body,
normal wings)
Meiosis I
b vg
Homozygous
recessive
b vg (black body,
vestigial wings)
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b+ vg+
b+ vg
b vg+
Meiosis I and II
b vg Recombinant
Meiosis II
Eggs
b+vg+
chromosomes
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
Sperm
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.10c
Recombinant
chromosomes
Meiosis II
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
965
944
Wild type
Black(gray-normal) vestigial
206
Grayvestigial
185
Blacknormal
Eggs
Testcross
offspring
b+vg+
b+ vg+
b vg
b+ vg
b vg+
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
b vg
Sperm
Recombinant
Parental-type
offspring
offspring
391 recombinants
Recombination
=
× 100 = 17%
frequency
2,300 total offspring
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mapping the Distance Between Genes Using
Recombination Data: Scientific Inquiry
 Alfred Sturtevant, one of Morgan’s students,
constructed a genetic map, an ordered list of
the genetic loci along a particular chromosome
 Sturtevant predicted that the farther apart two
genes are, the higher the probability that a
crossover will occur between them and therefore
the higher the recombination frequency
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.11
A linkage map is a genetic map of a chromosome
based on recombination frequencies
Results
Recombination
frequencies
9%
Chromosome
9.5%
17%
b
cn
vg
Distances between genes can be expressed as map units; one
map unit, or centimorgan, represents a 1% recombination
frequency
Map units indicate relative distance and order,
not precise locations of genes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Sturtevant used recombination frequencies to
make linkage maps of fruit fly genes
 He and his colleagues found that the genes
clustered into four groups of linked genes (linkage
groups)
 The linkage maps, combined with the fact that
there are four chromosomes in Drosophila,
provided additional evidence that genes are
located on chromosomes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.12
Mutant phenotypes
Short
aristae
0
Maroon
eyes
48.5
16.5
Long
Red
aristae
eyes
(appendages
on head)
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Black Cinnabar Vestigial Down- Brown
wings curved eyes
eyes
body
wings
Gray
body
57.5
Red
eyes
67.0 75.5
104.5
Normal Normal Red
wings wings eyes
Wild-type phenotypes
Concept 15.4: Alterations of chromosome
number or structure cause some genetic
disorders
 Large-scale chromosomal alterations in humans
and other mammals often lead to spontaneous
abortions (miscarriages) or cause a variety of
developmental disorders
 Plants tolerate such genetic changes better than
animals do
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Abnormal Chromosome Number
 In nondisjunction, pairs of homologous
chromosomes do not separate normally during
meiosis
 As a result, one gamete receives two of the same
type of chromosome, and another gamete
receives no copy
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.13-3
Meiosis I
Nondisjunction
Meiosis II
Nondisjunction
Gametes
n+1
n+1 n−1
n−1
n+1
n−1
n
n
Number of chromosomes
(a) Nondisjunction of homologous chromosomes in
meiosis I
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
(b) Nondisjunction of sister
chromatids in meiosis II
 Aneuploidy results from the fertilization of gametes in
which nondisjunction occurred
 A monosomic zygote has only one copy of a particular
chromosome
 A trisomic zygote has three copies of a particular
chromosome
 Offspring with this condition have an abnormal number of a
particular chromosome
 Some types of aneuploidy appear to upset the genetic
balance less than others, resulting in individuals surviving to
birth and beyond
 These surviving individuals have a set of symptoms, or
syndrome, characteristic of the type of aneuploidy
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)
 Down syndrome is an aneuploid condition that
results from three copies of chromosome 21
 It affects about one out of every 700 children born
in the United States
 The frequency of Down syndrome increases with
the age of the mother, a correlation that has not
been explained
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.15
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Aneuploidy of Sex Chromosomes
 Nondisjunction of sex chromosomes produces a
variety of aneuploid conditions
 XXX females are healthy, with no unusual physical
features
 Klinefelter syndrome is the result of an extra
chromosome in a male, producing XXY individuals
• These individuals have male sex organs, but have
abnormally small testes and are sterile. Although the
extra X is inactivated, some breast enlargement and
other female characteristics are common. Affected
individuals have normal intelligence. Males with an
extra Y chromosome (XYY) tend to be somewhat
taller than average.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
 Polyploidy is a condition in which an organism
has more than two complete sets of chromosomes
 Triploidy (3n) is three sets of chromosomes
 Tetraploidy (4n) is four sets of chromosomes
 Polyploidy is common in plants, but not animals
 Polyploids are more normal in appearance than
aneuploids
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Alterations of Chromosome Structure
 Breakage of a chromosome can lead to four types
of changes in chromosome structure
 Deletion removes a chromosomal segment
 Duplication repeats a segment
 Inversion reverses orientation of a segment within
a chromosome
 Translocation moves a segment from one
chromosome to another
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.14
(c) Inversion
(a) Deletion
A
B C D
E
F G
A
H
B C D
A deletion removes a
chromosomal segment.
A
B C
E
F G
H
F
A
G H
B C B
E
F G
H
C D
E
F G
E
F G
H
M N
O P
Q
R
A translocation moves a
segment from one chromosome
to a nonhomologous
chromosome.
H
M N
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
C B
B C D
A duplication repeats
a segment.
A
H
(d) Translocation
(b) Duplication
B C D E
F G
An inversion reverses a
segment within a chromosome.
A D
A
E
O C D
E
F G
H
A
B P
Q
R
Figure 15.16
Normal chromosome 9
Normal chromosome 22
Reciprocal translocation
Translocated chromosome 9
Translocated chromosome 22
(Philadelphia chromosome)
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Disorders Caused by Structurally Altered
Chromosomes
 The syndrome cri du chat (“cry of the cat”), results from a
specific deletion in chromosome 5. A child born with this
syndrome is severely intellectually
disabled and has a catlike cry;
individuals usually die in infancy
or early childhood
 Certain cancers, including chronic myelogenous
leukemia (CML), are caused by translocations
of chromosomes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Concept 15.5: Some inheritance patterns are
exceptions to standard Mendelian inheritance
 There are two normal exceptions to Mendelian
genetics
 One exception involves genes located in the
nucleus, and the other exception involves genes
located outside the nucleus
 In both cases, the sex of the parent contributing an
allele is a factor in the pattern of inheritance
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Genomic Imprinting
• For a few mammalian traits, the phenotype depends on which parent
passed along the alleles for those traits
• Such variation in phenotype is called genomic imprinting
• Genomic imprinting involves the silencing of certain genes depending
on which parent passes them on
• Because different genes are imprinted during gamete production,
some genes in a zygote are maternally imprinted, and others are
paternally imprinted. Patterns of imprinting are characteristic of a
given species. These maternal and paternal imprints are transmitted
to all body cells during development.
• It appears that imprinting is the result of the methylation (addition of
–CH3) of cytosine nucleotides which silences the gene
• Genomic imprinting is thought to affect only a small fraction of
mammalian genes.
• Most imprinted genes are critical for embryonic development. Normal
development requires that embryonic cells have only one active copy
of certain genes.
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 15.17
Paternal
chromosome
Maternal
chromosome
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed.
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed.
Normal-sized mouse
(wild type)
(a) Homozygote
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from mother
Normal-sized mouse (wild type)
Normal Igf2 allele
is expressed.
Mutant Igf2 allele
is not expressed.
(b) Heterozygotes
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
Mutant Igf2 allele
inherited from father
Dwarf mouse (mutant)
Mutant Igf2 allele
is expressed.
Normal Igf2 allele
is not expressed.
Inheritance of Organelle Genes
 Extranuclear genes (or cytoplasmic genes) are found in
organelles in the cytoplasm
 Mitochondria, chloroplasts, and other plant plastids carry
small circular DNA molecules
 Extranuclear genes are inherited maternally because the
zygote’s cytoplasm comes from
the egg
 Some defects in mitochondrial genes prevent cells
from making enough ATP and result in diseases
that affect the muscular and nervous systems
 For example, mitochondrial myopathy and Leber’s
hereditary optic neuropathy
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.
The first evidence of extranuclear genes came from
studies on the inheritance of yellow or white patches
on leaves of an otherwise green plant
© 2014 Pearson Education, Inc.