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Carbon Compounds in Cells What is Organic Chemistry? • Is the chemistry that deals with element carbon and one or more elements. • All living organisms are made up of carbon-hints why we study it in biology. • Examples of organic compounds are: – Protein, Nucleic Acid, Carbohydrates, and Lipids • Methane is the simplest organic compound Carbon Bonding • Carbon and the other elements are bonded covalently • Oxygen, hydrogen, Nitrogen, Sulfur and carbon are most abundant elements in living matter • Carbon can share pairs of electrons with as many as four other atoms to form organic molecules of several configuration • Much of H and O is linked to form water Functional Groups • Are atoms or groups of atoms covalently bonded to a carbon backbone, they covey distinct properties, such as solubility and chemical reactivity, to the complete molecule. Know P. 38 You will have a quiz on this. Date: Friday, February 4, 2011 Four Families of Building Blocks • Simple sugars, fatty acids, amino acids, and nucleotides • Monomers can be joined to form larger polymers. • Enzymes-is a class proteins that make metabolic reactions proceed faster Ten Categories of Reactions • 1- Functional Group transfer from one molecule to another • 2- Electron transfer- stripped from one one molecule to another • 3- Rearrangement of internal bond converts one type of organic molecule to another Continue… • 4- Condensation- two molecules to one • 5- Cleavage- one molecule into two • 6- Hydrolysis - break down compounds by adding water • 7- Dehydration - two components brought together, produces H2O • 8- Endergonic - requires the input of energy • 9- Exergonic - releases energy • 10- Redox - electron transfer reactions Condensation Reaction • One molecule is stripped of its H+, another is stripped of its OH-; then the two molecule fragments join to form a new compound and the H+ and OH- form water. • Example: Starch formed by repeat condensation reaction Hydrolysis • Is the reserve: one molecule is split by the addition H+ and OH- (from water) to the components (condensation in reserve) • Hydrolysis cleave polymer into smaller molecules when required for the building blocks for energy Carbohydrates: Most Abundant element of life • Made up of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen in a set proportion of 1:2:1 • Monosaccharides (Simple Sugar) – They are characteristics by solubility in water, sweet taste, and several –OH • Examples: • Glucose and Fructose: Used assembling larger carbohydrate Glucose Carbohydrates: Continue • Disaccharides: Consists of two monosaccharides joined together through the process of dehydration synthesis (which removes water in the process) – Examples: Lactose (Glucose + Galactose) Present in Milk (dehydration synthesis) – Sucrose (glucose + Fructose) is transported form of sugar used by plants and harvested by humans for use in food – Continue Examples: – Maltose (two glucose) is present in germinating seeds • Pentoses: 5 carbon sugar – Deoxyribose (sugar for DNA) – Ribose (sugar for RNA) Complex Carbohydrates • Polysaccharides are macromolecules, polymers with few hundred to a few thousand monosaccharides joined together. – Examples: Starch: Plant storage for energy; unbranched coil chain and easily hydrolyzed – Cellulose: Found in plants for structure (insoluble) – Glycogen: (animal cell storage) – Chitin: polymer of glucose (arthropods exoskeleton) • Continue Examples – Glycogen: High branched used by animals to store energy in muscles and liver. • Is also converted to blood sugar when blood sugar drops – Chitin: polysaccharide with nitrogen attached to glucose monomers which gives arthropods exoskeleton Lipids • A large biological molecules that does not consist of polymers. • Lipids are greasy or oil compounds with little tendency to dissolve in water (hydrophobic) • Can be broken down by hydrolysis reaction • Function: energy storage, membrane structure and coatings Continue: Lipids • Fatty Acids – Fatty Acid: is a long chain of mostly carbon and hydrogen atoms with a –COOH group at one end Continue.. • When they are part of complex lipids, the fatty acids resemble long flexible tails – Unsaturated fats: fats are liquids (oils) at room temperature because one ore more double bonds between the carbons in the fatty acids permits “kinks” in the tails – Example: Fish Oil Unsaturated Fats • Saturated fats: (triglycerides) have a single C-C bonds in their fatty acid tails and are solids at room temperature • • • • They are tightly packed together Solid at room temperature Examples: Butter and Lard Diets rich in saturated fat leads to cardiovascular disease – Triglycerides: “neutral” fats most abundant lipids and the richest source of energy Fats • Are constructed from two kinds of smaller molecules: Glycerol and fatty acids – They are a rich source of energy, yielding more than twice the energy per weight basis as carbohydrates – Provides an insulation blanket for animals to endure the harsh cold temperatures Phospholipids • Formed from 2 fatty acids + phosphate group attached to glycerol • Provide structure support in membranes where they are arranged in bilayers Steroids • Have lipid characteristics by a carbon skeleton consisting of four fused rings • Example: Cholesterol: common component of animal cell membranes and is also the precursor from which other steroids are synthesized (Example: vertebrate sex hormones) Waxes • They are formed by attachment of long chains of fatty acids to long chains alcohols or carbon rings • Function: serve as coatings on plant parts and animals coverings Amino Acids • Are the building blocks of proteins • Contain a amino group, carboxyl group and one of twenty varying R groups • Covalently bonded to a central carbon atom Protein • Function as enzymes, in cell movements, as storage, and transport agents (hormones, antibodies, and structural material) • Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins (peptide bonds) – Amino acids coil into a 3D structure – Heat can denatured proteins causing a change in shape and the ability to work properly • Enzymes: special protein used to speed up a chemical reaction (biological catalyst) Polypeptide Formation (2 to 3 amino acids) Primary Structure • Primary structure is defined as ordered sequences of amino acids each linked together by peptide bonds to form polypeptide bonds • The sequence of amino acids to determined by DNA and is unique for each kind of protein Continue: Secondary structure • Fibrous Proteins (beta pleated) : have polypeptide chains organized as strands or sheets – Contribute to the shape, internal organization, and movement of cells. • Globular Proteins (alpha helix): have chains folded into compact rounded shapes – Example: Enzymes – Keratin Secondary Structure • Helical coil shape (e.g. Hemoglobin) or sheetlike array (as in silk) that results from hydrogen bonding of side groups on the amino acids chains. Tertiary Structure • Is the result of folding due to interactions among R groups along polypeptide chain Quaternary Structure • Two or more polypeptide chains • Hemoglobin- four interacting chains that form a globular protein • Keratin and collagen– complex fibrous proteins Glycoproteins • Consist of olgosaccharides covalently bonded to proteins • Abundantly found in exterior of animal cells and blood • Lipoproteins: have both lipid and protein components – Transport fats and cholesterol in the blood Denaturation • High Temperature or changes in pH can cause a loss of protein’s normal 3-D shape • Pineapple – Fresh vs Canned and Jello Why is protein so important? • Alternation of a cell’s DNA can result in the wrong amino acid insertion in a polypeptide chain – Example: If valine is substituted for glutamate in hemoglobin, the result is HbS (Sickle Cell Anemia) • Person who inherit two mutated genes for the beta chain of hemoglobin can make HbS • Causes a person blood to be shaped like a sickle not a round disk Nucleotides and Nucleic Acid • Nucleotides consists of a: 5 carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), a nitrogen base, and phosphate group – Adenosine phosphate are chemical messenger (cAMP) or energy carriers (ATP) – Nucleotide coenzyme transport hydrogen atoms and electrons (example NAD+ and FAD) – Nucleotides serve as a building block for nucleic acid Nucleic Acid • Are polymers of nucleotides – Four different kinds of nucleotides are strung together to form large single or doublestranded molecules – Each strand’s backbone consists of joined sugars and phosphates with nitrogen bases projecting toward interior DNA vs RNA • DNA – 2 strand – 5 carbon sugar: Deoxyribose – Nitrogen bases: Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine – Inheritance • RNA – 1 strand – 5 carbon sugar: Ribose – Nitrogen Bases: adenine, uracil, cytosine, guanine – Protein Synthesis