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Transcript
Why did they do that? Takes on the PUNIC WARS by David E Woody and edited by Miss Finneran One of history's great moments surrounds the conflict between Hannibal of Carthage, and the Roman Empire. Because of Hannibal's aggressiveness and militaristic philosophy, as well as a promise made to his father, these two great civilizations came into conflict in terrible and destructive ways. Your mission in this simulation is to learn about Hannibal and his Roman adversaries by making the same choices they made, and observing the results. You may choose to be either Hannibal or the Roman Generals, after which you will be given a set of choices from key moments in the conflict. If you make a choice other than that made by the historical characters, you will find a description of what might have happened had they chosen that option. Then you will be directed to another decision. If you choose the same option they chose, you will be told about the result, and then proceed. In the end, you should learn about Hannibal and Carthaginian society, as well as gaining insights into Rome and Roman values in these wars. Let's begin with some background. Good Luck! I Choose to the Romans Having chosen to represent the Romans, you will become several different leaders during the course of this simulation. Consuls are being appointed by the Senate each year, and many times the consul will come into the field himself to lead his troops. Other times, he will appoint a General, based on that man's reputation or expertise. This approach may yield uneven results, but, for Rome, it prevents something the Carthaginian Senate is very afraid of right now: the possibility that one General will gain so much fame and popularity that he will become a threat to the political system of the country. Rome is not yet the great power that it will come to be during its age of empire. She lacks a great navy, and has not yet been tested in battle. Rome has potential trouble on all frontiers. As our story opens, the Roman Senate is faced with a difficult decision. Word has come to Rome that Hannibal is in Iberia (Spain), and is causing concern among Roman allies there. It will not be long before Hannibal begins some sort of conquest of Roman lands. People in Rome are mad that the settlement to the First Punic War, allowed Carthage to keep lands in Spain, which would give the Carthaginians a land base from which to attack Rome's allies. Unfortunately, the Gauls are also getting out of hand at this point. They have been aggressive, and are in obvious need of a lesson in manners. They threaten the Roman border, and have been known to cross the mountains, sacking towns and destroying Roman outposts. With the question before the Roman Senate: "Shall we send our forces to Spain to confront Hannibal, or to Gaul to put the Gauls in their place?", how do you vote? Send troops to Spain Send troops to Gaul XXX-You have changed history! Had Rome sent its forces directly to Spain, it is unclear what the result might have been. It is possible that the Gauls might have invaded Italy, and caused a great deal of trouble. It would not be out of the realm of possibility that Rome would have collapsed, and western history changed significantly. If Hannibal were not the official leader, he might have had less impact, and the Romans might have been victorious. Scroll down to see what actually happened. ****Excellent choice! Having chosen to send your troops to Gaul, you have done exactly what the "real" Romans chose to do. Logically, the threat from Gaul is much closer and more immediate, and must be dealt with. Just as the real Romans did, however, you may have made a mistake. The time, money, and men it will cost you to subdue the Gauls is critical to the development of Hannibal and his plans. While you delay, Hasdrubal, the official leader of the Carthaginian forces, is murdered, and Hannibal is chosen leader by acclamation. His popularity and power rise to new heights, and his men will now willingly follow him into any situation, regardless of their potential gain. Since Hannibal truly detests Rome, he will no doubt cause you great trouble now. You are now in Spain, with an immense force. Hannibal is in the vicinity, and spies report that he has only one-fifth the number of troops you do . He is withdrawing toward the Tagus River, and you are in hot pursuit. This would be an excellent chance to eliminate Hannibal, if you choose your strategy wisely. You cannot be sure when you might have another opportunity to catch Hannibal alone with such a small force. What did the Romans do? Pursue Hannibal Look for better battleground ****Excellent choice! ****Excellent choice! Having chosen to send your troops to Gaul, you have done exactly what the "real" Romans chose to do. Logically, the threat from Gaul is much closer and more immediate, and must be dealt with. Just as the real Romans did, however, you may have made a mistake. The time, money, and men it will cost you to subdue the Gauls is critical to the development of Hannibal and his plans. While you delay, Hasdrubal, the official leader of the Carthaginian forces, is murdered, and Hannibal is chosen leader by acclamation. His popularity and power rise to new heights, and his men will now willingly follow him into any situation, regardless of their potential gain. Since Hannibal truly detests Rome, he will no doubt cause you great trouble now. You are now in Spain, with an immense force. Hannibal is in the vicinity, and spies report that he has only one-fifth the number of troops you do . He is withdrawing toward the Tagus River, and you are in hot pursuit. This would be an excellent chance to eliminate Hannibal, if you choose your strategy wisely. You cannot be sure when you might have another opportunity to catch Hannibal alone with such a small force. What did the Romans do? Pursue Hannibal Look for better battleground ****Correct Choice! Imagining the opportunity to hit Hannibal hard in the early stages of this war, the Romans pursued him with all the speed they had. Catching up with him at the Tagus River, the Romans willingly chased Hannibal into the water. Unfortunately for them it was a bad decision. Hannibal had concealed his cavalry on the opposite shore, and, when the Romans were up to their armpits in water, that cavalry rushed in and cut them to shreds. Despite their superior numbers, the Romans had chosen very poor ground for this encounter, and they paid dearly. Hannibal soon became a major pain to the Romans. It was obvious that he would not be content to leave the boundaries as they had been set following the First Punic War. An immediate concern was the safety of the city of Saguntum, the southernmost boundary of Roman possessions in Spain. If Hannibal chose to attack it, there would definitely be war. The Romans also knew that Hannibal had what we will call the Fortification Problem. It takes a great deal of time, effort, resources, and men to reduce a city, and it would take Hannibal at least 9 months to reduce Saguntum and capture it. This might work contrary to his overwhelming desire to assault Rome itself. The Roman Senate decided that they had two options. One was to send a large force immediately to Saguntum, which might provoke Hannibal into a full-scale assault that would begin the Second War. The other option was to send diplomats to negotiate with Hannibal, in hopes of keeping conflict from occurring. Which choice do you think they made? Send in a large force Send Diplomats XXX - You have changed History! Maybe you made a better choice, since the Romans are about to be slaughtered here. Had they waited, they might have found a place more favorable to their success, because Hannibal is exceptional at using geographic locations to his own advantage. At this point, however, they are not yet aware of his amazing generalship, nor sufficiently respectful of his ability as a tactician. Scroll down to see what actually happened. ****Correct Choice! Imagining the opportunity to hit Hannibal hard in the early stages of this war, the Romans pursued him with all the speed they had. Catching up with him at the Tagus River, the Romans willingly chased Hannibal into the water. Unfortunately for them it was a bad decision. Hannibal had concealed his cavalry on the opposite shore, and, when the Romans were up to their armpits in water, that cavalry rushed in and cut them to shreds. Despite their superior numbers, the Romans had chosen very poor ground for this encounter, and they paid dearly. Hannibal soon became a major pain to the Romans. It was obvious that he would not be content to leave the boundaries as they had been set following the First Punic War. An immediate concern was the safety of the city of Saguntum, the southernmost boundary of Roman possessions in Spain. If Hannibal chose to attack it, there would definitely be war. The Romans also knew that Hannibal had what we will call the Fortification Problem. It takes a great deal of time, effort, resources, and men to reduce a city, and it would take Hannibal at least 9 months to reduce Saguntum and capture it. This might work contrary to his overwhelming desire to assault Rome itself. The Roman Senate decided that they had two options. One was to send a large force immediately to Saguntum, which might provoke Hannibal into a full-scale assault that would begin the Second War. The other option was to send diplomats to negotiate with Hannibal, in hopes of keeping conflict from occurring. Which choice do you think they made? Send in a large force Send in Diplomats XXX You have changed History! Had the Romans immediately sent a large force, it is possible that Hannibal would have been contained. He would, no doubt, have continued to cause problems, but he would always have had a strong city behind him, and this could cause him to become surrounded. Rome, however, did not yet see itself as a world power of such strength that it could afford another major conflict, and so decided to try diplomatic solutions first. Scroll down... **** The diplomats arrive in Saguntum shortly after Hannibal had laid siege to the city. He refused to see them, claiming that he was busy, and that he feared for their safety. The ambassadors decided to proceed to Carthage, in an attempt to convince the Carthaginian Senate to call Hannibal home. This foray was also met with a lack of interest. This allowed Hannibal to continue. Hannibal destroyed Saguntum, and proceeded north to invade Italy by land. Because of the Port Problem, he felt that it would be impossible to invade Rome by sea because Italy had few good harbors, so a land route was his best option. He crossed over the Pyrenees Mountains into Gaul, and headed for the Alps. The Romans, meanwhile, had some problems of their own. One of these I call the Leadership Factor. Whereas Hannibal will be the leader of Carthaginian forces for the entirety of this conflict, the Romans would have many different leaders, of varying ability levels. Another Roman problem, was the Specificity of Orders Problem. Roman consuls, as Generals, were under very specific orders from the Senate. This prevented Roman armies from clashing. Thus the consuls often took their armies in separate directions, to pursue different goals which limited their courses of action. The consuls are Cornelius Scipio and Sempronius. Sempronius was sent with an army to Sicily, in case Carthage should attempt to retake the island. Scipio was ordered to take his troops on ships, and sail to Spain to protect Roman possessions there. Along the way, he stopped at the Rhone River for rest and supplies. A cavalry detachment he sent to scout the countryside came into conflict with a detachment of Hannibal's cavalry. The Romans reported a complete victory. It was also noted that Hannibal was currently engaged in battle with hostile Gauls. The time would seem to be ripe to catch him unawares, and unable to fight two groups. Scipio was faced with his first major decision. Should he follow orders, and proceed to Spain, in which case Hannibal would continue his advance? Should he chase Hannibal, who was in unfamiliar territory? If his troops went on to Spain, Hannibal would have no opposition in getting to Italy, except for the Alps and the unreliable Gauls. What should he do? Pursue Hannibal in Gaul Send troops on to Spain The diplomats arrive in Saguntum shortly after Hannibal had laid siege to the city. He refused to see them, claiming that he was busy, and that he feared for their safety. The ambassadors decided to proceed to Carthage, in an attempt to convince the Carthaginian Senate to call Hannibal home. This foray was also met with a lack of interest. This allowed Hannibal to continue. **** Hannibal destroyed Saguntum, and proceeded north to invade Italy by land. Because of the Port Problem, he felt that it would be impossible to invade Rome by sea because Italy had few good harbors, so a land route was his best option. He crossed over the Pyrenees Mountains into Gaul, and headed for the Alps. The Romans, meanwhile, had some problems of their own. One of these I call the Leadership Factor. Whereas Hannibal will be the leader of Carthaginian forces for the entirety of this conflict, the Romans would have many different leaders, of varying ability levels. Another Roman problem, was the Specificity of Orders Problem. Roman consuls, as Generals, were under very specific orders from the Senate. This prevented Roman armies from clashing. Thus the consuls often took their armies in separate directions, to pursue different goals which limited their courses of action. The consuls are Cornelius Scipio and Sempronius. Sempronius was sent with an army to Sicily, in case Carthage should attempt to retake the island. Scipio was ordered to take his troops on ships, and sail to Spain to protect Roman possessions there. Along the way, he stopped at the Rhone River for rest and supplies. A cavalry detachment he sent to scout the countryside came into conflict with a detachment of Hannibal's cavalry. The Romans reported a complete victory. It was also noted that Hannibal was currently engaged in battle with hostile Gauls. The time would seem to be ripe to catch him unawares, and unable to fight two groups. Scipio was faced with his first major decision. Should he follow orders, and proceed to Spain, in which case Hannibal would continue his advance? Should he chase Hannibal, who was in unfamiliar territory? If his troops went on to Spain, Hannibal would have no opposition in getting to Italy, except for the Alps and the unreliable Gauls. What should he do? Pursue Hannibal in Gaul Send troops on to Spain XXX You have changed History! (You really need to pay closer attention.) Because of the Specificity of Orders Problem, Scipio has no real choice but to send his troops on to Spain, because that is what the Senate ordered him to do. He did, however, return to Rome himself, to raise another army, and await Hannibal's passage over the Alps. Scroll down... **** That's right, you must follow orders to send troops to Spain. Scipio saw his only solution was to give control of his army to his generals, and return to Rome to prepare a new army for the defense of Italy. There was some question about whether Hannibal could successfully cross the Alps, but it was certain that, once across, he could not possibly return by that route. This would put Scipio in position to make another important decision. Hannibal crossed the Alps, although it cost him many of his war elephants, one of his greatest weapons. The steep descent into the Po River valley made it obvious that there would be no retreat by that path. Hannibal's only course now was to head into Italy itself. Moving north from Rome, Scipio convinced his men that they had Hannibal trapped between themselves and the Alps. He stirred their patriotism by reminding them that, if they failed, Rome would be lost. At the Ticinus branch of the Po, Scipio found himself only 5 miles from Hannibal's camp. Scipio was faced with a choice: build a bridge across the river, or wait on Hannibal to cross it. With a bridge, Scipio could fight Hannibal earlier and away from any important Italian cities. To wait might mean that Hannibal would move farther north, or even away from conflict altogether. Waiting might also cause Hannibal to become impatient, and perhaps make some mistakes, and Scipio would be fighting on his own territory. What do you think he did? Build a Bridge Wait on Hannibal That's right, you must follow orders. Scipio saw his only solution was to give control of his army to his generals, and return to Rome to prepare a new army for the defense of Italy. There was some question about whether Hannibal could successfully cross the Alps, but it was certain that, once across, he could not possibly return by that route. This would put Scipio in position to make another important decision. ***Good Choice: Hannibal crossed the Alps, although it cost him many of his war elephants, one of his greatest weapons. The steep descent into the Po River valley made it obvious that there would be no retreat by that path. Hannibal's only course now was to head into Italy itself. Moving north from Rome, Scipio convinced his men that they had Hannibal trapped between themselves and the Alps. He stirred their patriotism by reminding them that, if they failed, Rome would be lost. At the Ticinus branch of the Po, Scipio found himself only 5 miles from Hannibal's camp. Scipio was faced with a choice: build a bridge across the river, or wait on Hannibal to cross it. With a bridge, Scipio could fight Hannibal earlier and away from any important Italian cities. To wait might mean that Hannibal would move farther north, or even away from conflict altogether. Waiting might also cause Hannibal to become impatient, and perhaps make some mistakes, and Scipio would be fighting on his own territory. What do you think he did? Build a Bridge Wait on Hannibal **** One of the factors playing into Scipio's decision may have been the Food Factor. He knew that an army away from home, like Hannibal's, would need to move frequently in order to find food. A group of 50,000 men requires tremendous resources, much more than they can transport. Upon completing his bridge, Scipio crossed over with his troops, and, ironically, came into contact with Hannibal when neither General was entirely expecting it. Hannibal, seizing the moment, literally threw his troops into the Roman line, causing great concern at his aggressiveness. Meanwhile, he sent a detachment around to the rear of the Roman force, which caused panic among the Romans, disintegrating their order. Soon the battle was over, and Scipio was wounded in the process, so the Romans withdrew from the field in great disarray. They destroyed their bridge behind them, which kept Hannibal from pursuing them further. Still, their defeat was complete. Scipio had his army travel even at night in order to put a safe distance between themselves and Hannibal. Word was quickly sent to Rome that Scipio had been wounded, and the Senate recalled Sempronius from Sicily, ordering him to help Scipio. Having learned a painful lesson, Scipio advised that the combined Roman army find a defensive position, from which they could prevent Hannibal from advancing further. Sempronius, however, was anxious to prove his greatness as a General, and wished for immediate conflict. Sempronius wondered why he should fear Hannibal. He had personally not seen any reason to fear Hannibal, and wanted to pursue action at any moment. He knows that Hannibal is subject to the Replacement Factor, and he is not. Rome can draft new soldiers at any time, but Hannibal can only add to his army by capturing native, paying mercenaries, or waiting for help from Carthage. By now, it was late in the year, and the war "season" would soon be over. It was already an unusually cold and wet December, and both armies were miserable living out in the open. The two forces found themselves on opposite sides of the same branch of the Po. On a dark and stormy night, Sempronius found that his camp was under attack by a Carthaginian detachment. He quickly rallied his men, and began to fight back. The Romans had great success in this encounter, and Sempronius was greatly excited. He now had an important decision to make: should he pursue Hannibal's troops while he had them on the run, or wait until a better day with better weather? What would you do? Pursue Hannibal's Force Wait for a better opportunity XXX- You have changed History! It is entirely possible that, if Scipio had waited for Hannibal to cross the Ticinus, Hannibal may have moved north, gone around the Roman forces, and then down the east coast of Italy. That move by Hannibal might have been disastrous for the Romans. It is true that you must keep your army occupied, and the Romans were not yet fully aware of Hannibal's tactical genius, so earlier conflict seemed better. (Oh, how things seem.) Scroll down... **** One of the factors playing into Scipio's decision may have been the Food Factor. He knew that an army away from home, like Hannibal's, would need to move frequently in order to find food. A group of 50,000 men requires tremendous resources, much more than they can transport. Upon completing his bridge, Scipio crossed over with his troops, and, ironically, came into contact with Hannibal when neither General was entirely expecting it. Hannibal, seizing the moment, literally threw his troops into the Roman line, causing great concern at his aggressiveness. Meanwhile, he sent a detachment around to the rear of the Roman force, which caused panic among the Romans, disintegrating their order. Soon the battle was over, and Scipio was wounded in the process, so the Romans withdrew from the field in great disarray. They destroyed their bridge behind them, which kept Hannibal from pursuing them further. Still, their defeat was complete. Scipio had his army travel even at night in order to put a safe distance between themselves and Hannibal. Word was quickly sent to Rome that Scipio had been wounded, and the Senate recalled Sempronius from Sicily, ordering him to help Scipio. Having learned a painful lesson, Scipio advised that the combined Roman army find a defensive position, from which they could prevent Hannibal from advancing further. Sempronius, however, was anxious to prove his greatness as a General, and wished for immediate conflict. Sempronius wondered why he should fear Hannibal. He had personally not seen any reason to fear Hannibal, and wanted to pursue action at any moment. He knows that Hannibal is subject to the Replacement Factor, and he is not. Rome can draft new soldiers at any time, but Hannibal can only add to his army by capturing native, paying mercenaries, or waiting for help from Carthage. By now, it was late in the year, and the war "season" would soon be over. It was already an unusually cold and wet December, and both armies were miserable living out in the open. The two forces found themselves on opposite sides of the same branch of the Po. On a dark and stormy night, Sempronius found that his camp was under attack by a Carthaginian detachment. He quickly rallied his men, and began to fight back. The Romans had great success in this encounter, and Sempronius was greatly excited. He now had an important decision to make: should he pursue Hannibal's troops while he had them on the run, or wait until a better day with better weather? What would you do? Pursue Hannibal's Force Wait for a better opportunity **** Sempronius was so excited by his success that he roused his entire army, and attacked Hannibal's forces, which were retreating rapidly now. Onward he charged, confident of success and glory. He drove the Carthaginians back across the river, he felt the entire war might come to an end soon. One lesson we should learn about Hannibal is that he seldom takes any action without considering all the possibilities. The entire scenario had been planned by Hannibal in advance. He knew from spies that Sempronius was overanxious, and required only a little success to cause him to stumble forward blindly. Hannibal had sent only a small force to attack Sempronius' camp, concealing his cavalry and major forces in the high grasses across the river. When the Romans pursued the Carthaginians across the river, they emerged cold and soaking wet. Now, surrounded by well-fed and rested troops, the Romans could not fight effectively. Hannibal's men were decisively victorious, and many Romans drowned in the river attempting to escape. Following this great disaster, the Roman consuls were forced into an immediate decision. They must choose whether to remain in position in an attempt to restrict Hannibal's movements, or to retreat to Rome for rest during winter and time to reinforce their army. Winter was now full upon them, making supplies and food even harder for Hannibal to acquire. Going home, though would give Hannibal free run of the countryside. What would you do? Stay and resist Hannibal Return home for winter XXX You have changed History! The Romans had all the advantages by waiting Hannibal out. He had limited resources and allies, where the Romans could draft reinforcements and pull in supplies any time they wished. Time was on the Roman side, but Sempronius' desire to prove himself a worthy General gave that advantage away. If he had waited, the Romans would have done better, but that's not the historical action. Scroll down. **** Sempronius was so excited by his success that he roused his entire army, and attacked Hannibal's forces, which were retreating rapidly now. Onward he charged, confident of success and glory. He drove the Carthaginians back across the river, he felt the entire war might come to an end soon. One lesson we should learn about Hannibal is that he seldom takes any action without considering all the possibilities. The entire scenario had been planned by Hannibal in advance. He knew from spies that Sempronius was overanxious, and required only a little success to cause him to stumble forward blindly. Hannibal had sent only a small force to attack Sempronius' camp, concealing his cavalry and major forces in the high grasses across the river. When the Romans pursued the Carthaginians across the river, they emerged cold and soaking wet. Now, surrounded by well-fed and rested troops, the Romans could not fight effectively. Hannibal's men were decisively victorious, and many Romans drowned in the river attempting to escape. Following this great disaster, the Roman consuls were forced into an immediate decision. They must choose whether to remain in position in an attempt to restrict Hannibal's movements, or to retreat to Rome for rest during winter and time to reinforce their army. Winter was now full upon them, making supplies and food even harder for Hannibal to acquire. Going home, though would give Hannibal free run of the countryside. What would you do? Stay and resist Hannibal Return home for winter XXX – You’ve Changed History! This time, with likely disastrous results. If the Romans had chosen to stay and fight, it is likely that Hannibal would have destroyed their entire army, and have nothing left to prevent him from attacking Rome. The only wise thing to do was to retreat and hope for better days. Scroll down... *** This was really the Romans' only option, since their defeat at this point would give Hannibal unrestricted access to Rome. By returning home, the Roman army spent the winter in their own houses, while Hannibal had to remain in camps and look for food. Every hardship Hannibal endured toughened his men, but also reduced his force. By spring, this might give the Romans some advantages. The Romans now had new consuls to lead their troops in the spring of 216 BC. The consul chosen to find and attack Hannibal was a man named Flaminius. This man believed that Hannibal had been overrated as a General. Flaminius was aware that Hannibal had spent a rough winter. Hannibal had tried to cross the Apennine Mountains to get to the warmer eastern coast of Italy for the winter, and failed to do so. This failure had cost him men and supplies, weakening his forces. Spies now reported to Flaminius that Hannibal was struggling to cross the swamps around the Arno River. Flaminius, excited by the prospect of catching a weakened Hannibal in an unfavorable location, pushed his troops north, looking for battle. At Lake Thrasymene, Flaminius caught his first glimpse of Hannibal's army. Lake Thrasymene is long and narrow, surrounded by mountains. Through the narrow pass at one point in the Lake, Flaminius could see the encampment of the Carthaginians at the far end. He could hardly contain his excitement at the prospect of battle. He was now faced with an important choice. He might set up a defensive line and wait for Hannibal to come to him. He might lead his men in a brave attack upon the Carthaginian encampment. Making the correct choice could be decisive in ending the war. What do you think he did? Attack Hannibal's Camp Wait defensively for Hannibal to come This was really the Romans' only option, since their defeat at this point would give Hannibal unrestricted access to Rome. By returning home, the Roman army spent the winter in their own houses, while Hannibal had to remain in camps and look for food. Every hardship Hannibal endured toughened his men, but also reduced his force. By spring, this might give the Romans some advantages. *** The Romans now had new consuls to lead their troops in the spring of 216 BC. The consul chosen to find and attack Hannibal was a man named Flaminius. This man believed that Hannibal had been overrated as a General. Flaminius was aware that Hannibal had spent a rough winter. Hannibal had tried to cross the Apennine Mountains to get to the warmer eastern coast of Italy for the winter, and failed to do so. This failure had cost him men and supplies, weakening his forces. Spies now reported to Flaminius that Hannibal was struggling to cross the swamps around the Arno River. Flaminius, excited by the prospect of catching a weakened Hannibal in an unfavorable location, pushed his troops north, looking for battle. At Lake Thrasymene, Flaminius caught his first glimpse of Hannibal's army. Lake Thrasymene is long and narrow, surrounded by mountains. Through the narrow pass at one point in the Lake, Flaminius could see the encampment of the Carthaginians at the far end. He could hardly contain his excitement at the prospect of battle. He was now faced with an important choice. He might set up a defensive line and wait for Hannibal to come to him. He might lead his men in a brave attack upon the Carthaginian encampment. Making the correct choice could be decisive in ending the war. What do you think he did? Attack Hannibal's Camp Wait defensively for Hannibal to come ****Attack is the only choice for someone as aggressive, self-confident, and vain as Flaminius. It also is the completely wrong choice for him to make in this circumstance. Hannibal placed men on the mountainside above the Lake, allowing him to drop in behind Flaminius' troops, leaving them no room for escape. (This is why we never take an army through a narrow pass.) The Roman forces were slaughtered, including Flaminius. The destruction was total, and the people of Rome began to despair. In times of greatest crisis, the Romans created a special, all-powerful office, called dictator. This was a very difficult step for the Roman Senate to make, because it meant that one man would have complete social and military power, but they made an excellent choice in Fabius Maximus. Fabius decided to use a new strategy against Hannibal, a strategy still known as "Fabian Tactics". Fully aware of Hannibal's restriction by the Food Factor, as well as his Replacement Factor, denying him the ability to reinforce his troops, Fabius wanted to stretch Hannibal's food and soldier supply as thin as possible so he told the citizens to take all the food with them and burn the rest as they were moving to other cities. Eventually, Fabius' strategy paid off. Knowing the countryside was to his advantage, and, by clever maneuvering, he eventually moved Hannibal's army into a box canyon among the mountains. By placing a line of troops all around the rim of the canyon, he prevented Hannibal from being able to escape up the mountains. The main body of the Roman force was kept at the entrance to the canyon, acting as the cork in a bottle. Hannibal, of course, cannot be expected to take all this without a fight. It is certain that he will do something here, the only question is what. If you were Fabius, you'd expect some sort of action from Hannibal, and it will help you win if you can predict his action correctly. Hannibal seems to be faced with only two options: attack up the hill, or attack through the pass. So, what do you think he will do? Attack the army on the hilltops Attack the army in the pass XXX- You have changed History! You have made a superior tactical decision, but your understanding of human nature may need fine-tuning. Pushing an army through a narrow pass is just asking for trouble. Scroll down... ****Attack is the only choice for someone as aggressive, self-confident, and vain as Flaminius. It also is the completely wrong choice for him to make in this circumstance. Hannibal placed men on the mountainside above the Lake, allowing him to drop in behind Flaminius' troops, leaving them no room for escape. (This is why we never take an army through a narrow pass.) The Roman forces were slaughtered, including Flaminius. The destruction was total, and the people of Rome began to despair. In times of greatest crisis, the Romans created a special, all-powerful office, called dictator. This was a very difficult step for the Roman Senate to make, because it meant that one man would have complete social and military power, but they made an excellent choice in Fabius Maximus. Fabius decided to use a new strategy against Hannibal, a strategy still known as "Fabian Tactics". Fully aware of Hannibal's restriction by the Food Factor, as well as his Replacement Factor, denying him the ability to reinforce his troops, Fabius wanted to stretch Hannibal's food and soldier supply as thin as possible so he told the citizens to take all the food with them and burn the rest as they were moving to other cities. Eventually, Fabius' strategy paid off. Knowing the countryside was to his advantage, and, by clever maneuvering, he eventually moved Hannibal's army into a box canyon among the mountains. By placing a line of troops all around the rim of the canyon, he prevented Hannibal from being able to escape up the mountains. The main body of the Roman force was kept at the entrance to the canyon, acting as the cork in a bottle. Hannibal, of course, cannot be expected to take all this without a fight. It is certain that he will do something here, the only question is what. If you were Fabius, you'd expect some sort of action from Hannibal, and it will help you win if you can predict his action correctly. Hannibal seems to be faced with only two options: attack up the hill, or attack through the pass. So, what do you think he will do? Attack the army in the hilltops Attack the army in the pass XXX - You have changed History! You would have fallen for the same trick the Romans did. Scroll down... *** The Romans never really knew what to expect of Hannibal, and he took advantage of that now. It seemed like suicide to try to break through the narrow opening to the canyon, but that's exactly what he did... after appearing to do the opposite. He tied torches to the horns of the oxen that were still part of his possessions. In the middle of the night, he lit the torches, and drove the oxen up the hill. The Romans spotted the lights and assumed, incorrectly, that Hannibal was making his way out of the canyon. There was no way the thin line of troops at the top could withstand all of Hannibal's force, so troops were immediately rushed from the pass to the hilltop to defend it. The situation became very bizarre, when the torches burned so low that they singed the oxes' horns, causing them to dash about wildly. The torches caught small trees and shrubs on fire, and the Romans found themselves fighting forest fires, along with the "enemy". Hannibal, meanwhile, sneaked his troops out through the pass, and completed his escape. A daring, desperate move had succeeded. This failure did not deter Fabius from his strategy, but it did make him even more unpopular in Rome. The Roman military commander of the cavalry was known as the "Master of the Horse". Fabius' man in that capacity was named Minucius, who now began to lobby for a more aggressive strategy. Minucius was another active, arrogant man, who believed that he could defeat Hannibal if given the chance. He began to convince Roman politicians that Hannibal could be beaten, if attacked head-on. Fabius was eventually recalled to Rome to explain his strategy. While he was gone, they granted Minucius equal powers with Fabius, and decreed that he would be treated as an equal dictator. Fabius was, of course, terribly upset over this turn of events, but resolved to make the best of a bad situation. Upon returning to camp, he sat down to determine the best way for him and Minucius to divide control. They could each rule the army on alternating days, or they could split the army in two, equally. Minucius vowed to accept Fabius' choice in the matter as final. Fabius, even though his feelings had been hurt and his reputation damaged, wished to do what would be best for the safety of Rome. Which option do you think he chose? Divide the army in two Alternate Days of control *** The Romans never really knew what to expect of Hannibal, and he took advantage of that now. It seemed like suicide to try to break through the narrow opening to the canyon, but that's exactly what he did... after appearing to do the opposite. He tied torches to the horns of the oxen that were still part of his possessions. In the middle of the night, he lit the torches, and drove the oxen up the hill. The Romans spotted the lights and assumed, incorrectly, that Hannibal was making his way out of the canyon. There was no way the thin line of troops at the top could withstand all of Hannibal's force, so troops were immediately rushed from the pass to the hilltop to defend it. The situation became very bizarre, when the torches burned so low that they singed the oxes' horns, causing them to dash about wildly. The torches caught small trees and shrubs on fire, and the Romans found themselves fighting forest fires, along with the "enemy". Hannibal, meanwhile, sneaked his troops out through the pass, and completed his escape. A daring, desperate move had succeeded. This failure did not deter Fabius from his strategy, but it did make him even more unpopular in Rome. The Roman military commander of the cavalry was known as the "Master of the Horse". Fabius' man in that capacity was named Minucius, who now began to lobby for a more aggressive strategy. Minucius was another active, arrogant man, who believed that he could defeat Hannibal if given the chance. He began to convince Roman politicians that Hannibal could be beaten, if attacked head-on. Fabius was eventually recalled to Rome to explain his strategy. While he was gone, they granted Minucius equal powers with Fabius, and decreed that he would be treated as an equal dictator. Fabius was, of course, terribly upset over this turn of events, but resolved to make the best of a bad situation. Upon returning to camp, he sat down to determine the best way for him and Minucius to divide control. They could each rule the army on alternating days, or they could split the army in two, equally. Minucius vowed to accept Fabius' choice in the matter as final. Fabius, even though his feelings had been hurt and his reputation damaged, wished to do what would be best for the safety of Rome. Which option do you think he chose? Divide the army in two Alternate Days of control **** Fabius decided to split the army, figuring that he could at least save half of the troops, no matter what Minucius did. As it turned out, this was a wise decision. Shortly after the division of the army, Minucius found a detachment of Carthaginian troops upon a small hill. He attacked this detachment, having great success in the early going. He drove them off the top of the hill and down the other side, only to find himself assaulted on 3 sides, and forced to retreat uphill over uneven ground. Hannibal had created another trap, and Minucius had fallen into it by being overly aggressive. It was at this point that Fabius' decision became so important. With the other half of the army, he raced to Minucius' rescue, turning the tide of battle, and allowing Minucius to escape. A major disaster was narrowly avoided, but the Romans still had tough choices to make. Fabius' dictatorship had expired, and he returned home, retiring with class. One of the new consuls, Paulus Aemilius, listened carefully to Fabius' advice. The other consul at this time was Varro. It often seems that the Romans were excellent at choosing two completely different personalities as consul, so that the strengths of one balanced the weaknesses of the other. Varro and Aemilius had decided to alternate power daily, so there was continual confusion about what strategy was being pursued. Varro, on his day, defeated one of Hannibal's scouting party, and became quite inflamed with the idea of Hannibal's destruction. Roman scouts came across Hannibal's camp, and found it deserted. Varro was certain that this was the time to chase Hannibal down and finish him, but an officer named Statilius convinced him that it was a trap. The Romans avoided this trap. A few days later, Hannibal really did abandon his camp, and was able to slip away from the Romans, heading south. Varro was certain that this was his great opportunity. Near the city of Cannae, the two armies once again came into contact. It was an interesting dance, with Varro preparing for war on his days, and Aemilius maneuvering the troops away on his days. Sooner or later, there would have to be a final decision. What would you think best to do? Go with Varro to attack Hannibal Retreat with Aemilius for Defense XXX- You’ve Changed History! This is what Minucius wanted to do, so that he could eventually bring the entire army into conflict against Hannibal. Fabius still thought this was a mistake that would lead to disaster. Had they done this, it is very likely that, on his day of command, Minucius would have created a fight that would have destroyed the entire Roman army. Instead, Fabius chose the more careful option. Scroll down... *** Fabius decided to split the army, figuring that he could at least save half of the troops, no matter what Minucius did. As it turned out, this was a wise decision. Shortly after the division of the army, Minucius found a detachment of Carthaginian troops upon a small hill. He attacked this detachment, having great success in the early going. He drove them off the top of the hill and down the other side, only to find himself assaulted on 3 sides, and forced to retreat uphill over uneven ground. Hannibal had created another trap, and Minucius had fallen into it by being overly aggressive. It was at this point that Fabius' decision became so important. With the other half of the army, he raced to Minucius' rescue, turning the tide of battle, and allowing Minucius to escape. A major disaster was narrowly avoided, but the Romans still had tough choices to make. Fabius' dictatorship had expired, and he returned home, retiring with class. One of the new consuls, Paulus Aemilius, listened carefully to Fabius' advice. The other consul at this time was Varro. It often seems that the Romans were excellent at choosing two completely different personalities as consul, so that the strengths of one balanced the weaknesses of the other. Varro and Aemilius had decided to alternate power daily, so there was continual confusion about what strategy was being pursued. Varro, on his day, defeated one of Hannibal's scouting party, and became quite inflamed with the idea of Hannibal's destruction. Roman scouts came across Hannibal's camp, and found it deserted. Varro was certain that this was the time to chase Hannibal down and finish him, but an officer named Statilius convinced him that it was a trap. The Romans avoided this trap. A few days later, Hannibal really did abandon his camp, and was able to slip away from the Romans, heading south. Varro was certain that this was his great opportunity. Near the city of Cannae, the two armies once again came into contact. It was an interesting dance, with Varro preparing for war on his days, and Aemilius maneuvering the troops away on his days. Sooner or later, there would have to be a final decision. What would you think best to do? Go with Varro to attack Hannibal Retreat with Aemilius for Defense ****This is the historically accurate choice, but not a good move. Varro is no match as a General against Hannibal, and he proves it here. The Battle at Cannae is likely the most vicious and terrible battle of all the Punic Wars. At the beginning, a large number of Hannibal's mercenaries "surrendered" to the Romans, throwing their weapons to the ground, and declaring that they had had enough. The intensity of the battle was such that the Romans could not spare many men to watch these "prisoners". At an arranged time, the deserters produced daggers from under their uniforms, attacking the Romans from behind. The Roman force was decimated. Aemilius himself was killed here. Rome itself now lay open to Hannibal's attack, whenever he should choose to do so. The Roman command was in disarray. Citizens of Rome were certain that they were doomed to be conquered by Hannibal. Winter was again coming on, and Hannibal did not wish to commence a siege at this point. He removed his troops to Capua, and determined to make this city the new capitol of Italy. He was close enough to Rome to cause concern, but far enough away to be safe from any Roman attack. He sent word to Carthage that he needed money and reinforcements to finish his conquest. Eight years passed while Hannibal awaited help. Because of the Port Problem, his assistance would have to come by land. Eventually, Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal was on his way over the Alps with a new army. By now, of course, the Romans had an entirely new set of consuls. Livius was given an army to take north, where he was ordered to meet up with, and destroy, Hasdrubal. Nero was in charge of the southern armies, and was responsible for containing Hannibal. Hasdrubal sent a message to Hannibal that he had crossed the Alps, and would soon join with his brother to rid the world of the accursed Romans. Unfortunately for him, he had been very specific in his plans, which were intercepted by Roman agents. These plans were brought to Nero, who was faced with the most important choice of his life. Nero was fairly certain that Livius could not defeat Hasdrubal with the forces he had available. Knowing Hasdrubal's plans meant that Nero could be of great help to Livius if he took part of his army to the north. This, of course, would be in direct violation of the Senate, and could cause him to be branded a traitor. Worse yet, there was no time to send to Rome for Senate approval. If Nero chose to go north, it would leave his army almost defenseless against Hannibal. If Hannibal defeated the southern army, it would leave Rome defenseless against Hannibal's attack. What a dilemma! What should Nero do? Stay put and defend Rome Go north and help Livius XXX You have changed History! This would have been the wiser choice, as the Romans should have learned by now. You have to be concerned for the intelligence of a people who keep getting the same lesson over and over, but don't learn it. No Roman General is equal to Hannibal in a head-on encounter. The only possible effective strategy against him at home is to use the "Fabian Tactics" of maneuvering around him, denying him supplies and rest, and wear him down. Varro could not understand this, any more than Sempronius, Flaminius, or Minucius before him. "Ah, what fools these mortals be." Scroll down... ****This is the historically accurate choice, but not a good move. Varro is no match as a General against Hannibal, and he proves it here. The Battle at Cannae is likely the most vicious and terrible battle of all the Punic Wars. At the beginning, a large number of Hannibal's mercenaries "surrendered" to the Romans, throwing their weapons to the ground, and declaring that they had had enough. The intensity of the battle was such that the Romans could not spare many men to watch these "prisoners". At an arranged time, the deserters produced daggers from under their uniforms, attacking the Romans from behind. The Roman force was decimated. Aemilius himself was killed here. Rome itself now lay open to Hannibal's attack, whenever he should choose to do so. The Roman command was in disarray. Citizens of Rome were certain that they were doomed to be conquered by Hannibal. Winter was again coming on, and Hannibal did not wish to commence a siege at this point. He removed his troops to Capua, and determined to make this city the new capitol of Italy. He was close enough to Rome to cause concern, but far enough away to be safe from any Roman attack. He sent word to Carthage that he needed money and reinforcements to finish his conquest. Eight years passed while Hannibal awaited help. Because of the Port Problem, his assistance would have to come by land. Eventually, Hannibal's brother, Hasdrubal was on his way over the Alps with a new army. By now, of course, the Romans had an entirely new set of consuls. Livius was given an army to take north, where he was ordered to meet up with, and destroy, Hasdrubal. Nero was in charge of the southern armies, and was responsible for containing Hannibal. Hasdrubal sent a message to Hannibal that he had crossed the Alps, and would soon join with his brother to rid the world of the accursed Romans. Unfortunately for him, he had been very specific in his plans, which were intercepted by Roman agents. These plans were brought to Nero, who was faced with the most important choice of his life. Nero was fairly certain that Livius could not defeat Hasdrubal with the forces he had available. Knowing Hasdrubal's plans meant that Nero could be of great help to Livius if he took part of his army to the north. This, of course, would be in direct violation of the Senate, and could cause him to be branded a traitor. Worse yet, there was no time to send to Rome for Senate approval. If Nero chose to go north, it would leave his army almost defenseless against Hannibal. If Hannibal defeated the southern army, it would leave Rome defenseless against Hannibal's attack. What a dilemma! What should Nero do? Stay put and defend Rome Go north & help Livius ****Nero proved that Romans could be sneaky too. He realigned his troops, so that there would appear to be more men than there were. Then, under cover of darkness, he took about 8000 of his best soldiers out of the camp, and proceeded north. He sneaked these men into the camp of Livius, so that Hasdrubal would not be aware that his plans had been discovered. When the battle was joined, the extra men of Nero made all the difference in the outcome. Hasdrubal was utterly defeated, and, according to legend, threw himself into the middle of the battle, preferring to fight to the death, rather than be captured. It was now 204 BC, and the war had been continuing for most of one generation. One of new consuls in Rome was Scipio, son of the previous Scipio we met. Following the Battle of Cannae, this Scipio was one of the few leaders to remain faithful to Rome, and pledged to defend her to his death. In the drawing of lots for the division of the armies, Scipio drew Sicily, with the freedom to go elsewhere outside of Italy. Still, he had in his heart the motive of revenge for the death of his father, caused indirectly by Hannibal. This left him with an important choice. Should he accept his lot and go to Sicily, or try to use his political and social popularity to persuade the Senators to let him go after Hannibal? What would you do? Go to Sicily Pull some strings XXX - You have changed History! Nero was wise enough to recognize that he must risk anything to prevent Hannibal and Hasdrubal from uniting. This choice might have guaranteed the defeat of Rome, and changed all of Western History as we know it. It is very doubtful that Livius would have defeated Hasdrubal, and Nero could not allow Hannibal to gain any inspiration. Scroll down... ****Nero proved that Romans could be sneaky too. He realigned his troops, so that there would appear to be more men than there were. Then, under cover of darkness, he took about 8000 of his best soldiers out of the camp, and proceeded north. He sneaked these men into the camp of Livius, so that Hasdrubal would not be aware that his plans had been discovered. When the battle was joined, the extra men of Nero made all the difference in the outcome. Hasdrubal was utterly defeated, and, according to legend, threw himself into the middle of the battle, preferring to fight to the death, rather than be captured. It was now 204 BC, and the war had been continuing for most of one generation. One of new consuls in Rome was Scipio, son of the previous Scipio we met. Following the Battle of Cannae, this Scipio was one of the few leaders to remain faithful to Rome, and pledged to defend her to his death. In the drawing of lots for the division of the armies, Scipio drew Sicily, with the freedom to go elsewhere outside of Italy. Still, he had in his heart the motive of revenge for the death of his father, caused indirectly by Hannibal. This left him with an important choice. Should he accept his lot and go to Sicily, or try to use his political and social popularity to persuade the Senators to let him go after Hannibal? What would you do? Go to Sicily Pull some strings ****Scipio dutifully went to Sicily, to secure Roman possessions there, and ensure stability. Having done so, he used his freedom to travel, taking his army to Africa, endangering Carthage itself. Surely the Carthaginian Senate would call Hannibal home for defense, and the threat to Rome would be removed. It occurred in just this way, and we can now clearly see the end of the Second Punic War approaching. Hannibal was, indeed, called home, and even came face-to-face with Scipio himself. It is said that when the two Generals met, they stood a long time, staring at each other, and trying to comprehend the half-man, half-legend before them. Scipio developed an abiding respect for Hannibal, that lasted many years after these wars did. Hannibal knew that his army was likely to lose any further battles. Scipio's forces were sharp and disciplined, Hannibal's were weary and disillusioned. Still, peace has a price, and both had to decide what price they could pay. As the likely victor, Scipio could demand almost any terms he chose, but he needed to choose wisely to avoid any further conflict with the Carthaginian army. Still, the war had been long and costly, and the Roman Senate would demand retribution for its losses. Scipio could offer terms that would be easy for the Carthaginians to swallow, or he could demand great sacrifices from them, as punishment for their aggression. Which should he do? Battle Conclude a just peace Punish Carthage for aggression XXX You have changed History! Have some class, will ya? Scipio was a classy guy, who would never put his personal feelings ahead of duty to his country. He would not make the selfish choice now. Romans were also very superstitious, and the choosing of lots was considered leaving the decision in the hands of the gods. To go against one's destiny would be to deny the wisdom of the gods in choosing the right path for us. Scroll down... ****Scipio dutifully went to Sicily, to secure Roman possessions there, and ensure stability. Having done so, he used his freedom to travel, taking his army to Africa, endangering Carthage itself. Surely the Carthaginian Senate would call Hannibal home for defense, and the threat to Rome would be removed. It occurred in just this way, and we can now clearly see the end of the Second Punic War approaching. Hannibal was, indeed, called home, and even came face-to-face with Scipio himself. It is said that when the two Generals met, they stood a long time, staring at each other, and trying to comprehend the half-man, half-legend before them. Scipio developed an abiding respect for Hannibal, that lasted many years after these wars did. Hannibal knew that his army was likely to lose any further battles. Scipio's forces were sharp and disciplined, Hannibal's were weary and disillusioned. Still, peace has a price, and both had to decide what price they could pay. As the likely victor, Scipio could demand almost any terms he chose, but he needed to choose wisely to avoid any further conflict with the Carthaginian army. Still, the war had been long and costly, and the Roman Senate would demand retribution for its losses. Scipio could offer terms that would be easy for the Carthaginians to swallow, or he could demand great sacrifices from them, as punishment for their aggression. Which should he do? Conclude a just peace Punish Carthage for Aggression XXX You have changed History! If Scipio had given any easy peace terms, he might have been in trouble in Rome, but immediate history would have changed greatly. Hannibal offered tremendous concessions, but would not willingly accept that Carthage should become only a vassal state to Rome. He was willing to give up money, power, and weapons, but Scipio wanted Carthage reduced to a weak town, so that the threat to Rome would be removed. If they had agreed on a just peace, there would have been no final battle, but the two cities would undoubtedly have come into conflict again in the near future. It would have left Carthage more powerful, and therefore, more dangerous, and the Romans had come awfully near to destruction. This choice really wasn't an option, given the character of the Romans. Scroll down... The two great armies met for the final time on the Plain of Zama, a large area to the west of Carthage. Each had nearly 100,000 men, and the destruction was terrible. We must respect Hannibal for defending his city, but his army was no longer composed so much of seasoned veterans as it was by men past their prime, war-weary, or drafted in desperation. At the end of the day, Hannibal went to the Carthaginian Senate and proclaimed defeat. According to Abbott, he said, "The fortune which once attended me is lost forever, and nothing is left to us but to make peace with our enemies on any terms that they may think fit to impose." For his success and great victories, Scipio was given the title Africanus Major. He would always have great honor and respect in Rome. Epilogue ***The two great armies met for the final time on the Plain of Zama, a large area to the west of Carthage. Each had nearly 100,000 men, and the destruction was terrible. We must respect Hannibal for defending his city, but his army was no longer composed so much of seasoned veterans as it was by men past their prime, war-weary, or drafted in desperation. At the end of the day, Hannibal went to the Carthaginian Senate and proclaimed defeat. According to Abbott, he said, "The fortune which once attended me is lost forever, and nothing is left to us but to make peace with our enemies on any terms that they may think fit to impose." For his success and great victories, Scipio was given the title Africanus Major. He would always have great honor and respect in Rome. Epilogue Epilogue The settlement of peace required Carthage to give up all foreign possessions, and give its navy to Rome. This was an extreme hardship for a state based on profit by trade. All war elephants were given to the Romans, and the Carthaginians were forbidden from training more. They were not allowed to take their army outside Africa, and they could not declare war on enemies within Africa unless they had first obtained permission from Rome. They also had to pay Rome a large sum of money for the next 50 years. For 8 years, Hannibal remained in Carthage, and became a political leader. He was always on the edge of violating the peace treaty, leading forces against local enemies without the permission of the Romans. Slowly, he built a cadre of enemies in Carthage, who were sick of his continual bringing of unwanted attention. These enemies eventually reported to Rome that Hannibal was conspiring with Antiochus, ruler of Syria and Phoenicia, to once again bring war upon Rome. Though the reports were completely untrue, Hannibal had no choice but to flee from all Roman vengeance. He left Carthage, hoping to spare it the wrath the Romans felt for him, personally, but it would make no real difference. Though he hid well, Roman "FBI" agents pursued him from place to place, making his life miserable. Finally, Hannibal found himself surrounded (in 182 BC) in Bithynia (in Asia Minor). He had for many years carried with him a vial of poison for just such a case. He drank his poison, and died, finally bringing a major chapter of world history to a close.