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history
history
Memo helps you understand major
developments in the past. The clear
texts, interesting examples and
attractive practical tasks give an
insight into people’s lives in the past,
which seem strange in our eyes today.
However, some aspects will be very
familiar.
Memo makes history real and concrete.
The transparent and structured texts in
the handbook will give you an overview
of how all the periods relate to each
other and where events fit in. Focused
assignments in the workbooks for
you and your classmates will help you
broaden your understanding.
1 H/V TTO
The digital learning environment
allows you to practise and deepen your
knowledge of the subject material.
Many moving images and beautiful
pictures bring topics to life. In Memo
you will always be aware of your level
of progress, and if necessary Memo
supports you by providing more
explanation or practice.
552650
TEXTBOOK
ISBN 978 90 345 8448 9
TEXTBOOK
Contents
Preface
1
4
The age of hunters and farmers • The rise of civilisations
• 1
Key facts • 2
•
•
•
•
3
4
5
6
Close-up • 7
Introduction
8
From Big Bang to primitive man
Agriculture
The river Nile and Egypt
Society is changing
Gods and mummies
10
13
16
19
22
Building for eternity
25
• 8 Review
2
27
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
• 1
Key facts • 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
Close-up • 7
Introduction
30
Life in a Greek city-state
Local government: Athens and Sparta
The Greek gods
Greek culture
The Greeks and their neighbours
32
35
38
41
44
Going to school in Athens
47
• 8 Review
3
49
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Roman Empire
• 1 Introduction
Key facts • 2
• 3
• 4
• 5
• 6
Close-up • 7
52
The conquest of a great empire
Life in the Roman Empire
Emperors in power
Romanisation
Christianity in the Roman Empire
54
57
60
63
66
Popular entertainment in Rome
69
• 8 Review
71
2
4
The age of monks and knights • Monarchs, monks and farmers
• 1
Key facts • 2
•
•
•
•
3
4
5
6
Close-up • 7
Introduction
74
The Franks arrive
Life in the countryside
The spread of Christianity
Islam in Europe
Loyalty to the lord
76
79
82
85
88
Symbols in medieval art
91
• 8 Review
5
93
The age of cities and states • Citizens, princes and the pope
• 1
Key facts • 2
Introduction
96
War in the name of God
98
101
104
107
110
• 3 New cities begin to trade
• 4 The medieval citizen
• 5 It’s all about faith
• 6 Monarchs want more power
Close-up • 7
Count Floris V of Holland
113
• 8 Review
6
115
The age of discoverers and reformers • Rediscoveries
• 1 Introduction
Key facts • 2
118
Antiquity reborn
• 3 A different outlook
• 4 Beyond Europe everything is different
• 5 Voyages of discovery
• 6 The end of a culture
Close-up • 7
The conquest of the Inca Empire
• 8 Review
120
123
126
129
132
135
137
Overview of historical skills
Step-by-step plan for your research
Index
Colophon
3
140
141
142
144
Preface
The first book of Memo takes us a long way back in time. It begins in
prehistoric times and each chapter brings us closer to our time.
You will find out about people from the past. How did they live and how did
they think? Did they look like us? Sometimes you will stay close to home, in
other sections you will take a look in another country.
Memo contains many pictures and reading texts, and it also helps you
discover for yourself, sometimes individually, sometimes in groups.
Memo consists of two books to help you discover history. There is a
handbook (HB) with essential information, and a workbook (WB) with
assignments. In addition to the books, Memo also offers digital material.
The structure of a chapter
The chapters in Memo consist of several parts.
These parts are to be found in both handbook and workbook.
Introduction
Each chapter starts with an Introduction, in which you
learn about the period in the chapter by means of one
large picture, a map and a very short introduction.
Assignments relating to the Introduction can be found
in the workbook.
2
The age of Greeks and Romans
Source 2
The Greeks
1
Introduction
Map of the alliances of Sparta and Athens during the Peloponnesian War.
MACEDONIA
Troy
Olympus
AEGEAN
SEA
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
IONIAN
SEA
ATTICA
Athens
Peloponnese
MESSENIA
Athens and Delian League in 431 BC
allies of Athens
Sparta and allies
neutrals
)
An amphora from around 540 BC.
Around 750 BC, a unique society arose in Athens and elsewhere in Greece. The
ancient Greeks are famous for their architecture and art, their thinking and their type
of government. In their artwork they often depicted stories from the Greek world of
the gods. The world of the gods consisted of one family headed by the god Zeus. The
Greeks believed that Zeus was born in a cave and was raised by divine bees. The
amphora in source 1 shows four men, being stung by these bees all over their bodies.
They had entered the cave looking for honey. However, young Zeus took pity on the
burglars and changed them into birds, so that they could fly away.
This chapter is about Greek history in the age of Greeks and Romans (3000 BC until
500 AD). The age of Greeks and Romans is also called ancient times or antiquity.
30
30
Chapter 1
Review
What should you know and be able to do?
C A prosperous kingdom with a high civilization
grew in Egypt
• how prosperous Egypt became;
• what part irrigated agriculture played;
• how local administration and society were
organised;
• what part religion played in the lives of the
Egyptians.
You should be able to explain:
A Early humans went hunting and gathering
• how the evolution of man happened, on the
whole;
• what was the means of existence of the early
humans;
• in what kind of dwellings the first people lived.
B The emergence of agriculture
• which new means of existence arose around
9000 BC;
• what caused this change;
• what were the consequences.
Skill
To find out what happened previously, historians
investigate different types of sources.
Keywords
Review
The review tells you what you should know and be
able to do. It also contains an overview of concepts
(keywords) and a timeline. In the workbook, you
practise the main concepts and skills once again.
4
agriculture
A means of existence where people work in
arable or cattle farming.
arable farming
Cultivation of crops such as grain.
cattle farming
Keeping or breeding animals as a means of
existence.
civil servant
Someone who is employed by the local
administration to make sure decisions are
carried out, to collect taxes and to maintain
order.
crafts and trades
Making products or their components (by
hand), using raw materials.
division of tasks
The way in which the activities are shared out,
for example between men and women.
history
The past of which we have written sources.
hunter-gatherers
People who live by hunting, fishing and
gathering edible plants.
irrigated agriculture
A farming method in which the fields are
irrigated by means of canals and other water
systems.
local administration
People who set rules and regulations and make
sure everyone follows them.
means of existence
The way in which people provide for
themselves, for instance through farming or
hunting and gathering.
nature worship
A religion in which forces of nature, such as the
sun and water, are worshipped.
permanent dwelling places
Villages or towns where people built homes to
live in for a longer period of time.
pharaoh
Highest ruler (king) in Egypt in ancient times.
polytheism
Belief in more than one god.
27
Athens in the 5th century BC.
31
The age of hunters and farmers • The rise of civilisations
8
harbour
Source 3
BC
Wa
(it ll of
s po
Ph
ss ale
ible ro
co n
ur
se
)
Source 1
Sections with key facts
These sections consist of an Intro and the main text.
Each Intro is a short story accompanied by a large
picture. History is explained in the main text for you to
learn well. The assignments in the workbook support
your learning. There are also sources to accompany
the main text and in the workbook. The workbook
contains questions about the sources.
On pages 5-7, you will find out how Key facts works in
a section.
Close-up
The topic discussed in a Close-up section is not part
of the required learning material, but it is interesting
and it is fun to learn more about it.
ACHARNIAN GATE
DIPYLON GATE
SACRED GATE
Athens
PIRAEUS GATE
. 450
(ca
5 km
6.3
ll of
)
g wa
BC
Lon
. 445
ll (ca
g wa
Lon
Acropolis
Wall of
T h e m ist o c l e s
Key facts
Each section begins with an an
explanation and an illustration in
the Intro. The workbook offers some
questions to help you think about it.
Open the workbook on pages 4-5
and answer the questions under the
heading ‘Intro’.
An exciting subject
?
Source 1
What are the kinds of things you forget when you suffer memory loss?
There is an Englishman with no memory. A disease has affected his brain. He
cannot retain anything for more than 30 seconds. If you tell him something, he will
immediately forget. His long-term memory does not function anymore either. He does
remember that he has a wife and three children, but he does not know their names.
He has also forgotten that he is a musician, but he can still play the piano beautifully.
It is an automatism, just like talking. The man without a memory lives entirely in the
present. He is a man without a history.
The question is: why is history taught at school?
5
The main text follows after the Intro.
Read it well. Then do the assignments
under the heading ‘Using your
knowledge’ in the workbook. After
that, the ‘Assignment’ offers you more
chances to work with the material
from the main text and the historical
sources.
Every five years, hundreds of volunteers re-enact a famous battle
in the Belgian town of Waterloo. Napoleon Bonaparte, the French emperor and
conqueror, was beaten in that battle in 1815.
Source 2
The story of the man without a memory shows
that in fact everything around us is history.
Without any knowledge of your own history
you do not know who you are – what you like,
for example, and why, where you have grown
up, who are your relatives and what you have
learned from them. Cities and countries also
have ‘character’, thanks to their history. As
a result people in cities and countries feel
connected.
Here is a list of what we learn at school in
history.
of the world. Conflicts between countries
always relate to what has happened in
the past. Opinions often relate to history
too. For example, after World War II many
Dutch people did not think positively about
Germans.
• Inyourhistorylessons,youwillinvestigate
what actually happened. When two children
quarrel, they will both tell different stories
about what started their disagreement. How
do you know which story is true? A historian
tries to find out what exactly happened in the
past, how people lived and what were their
ideas. Sources are essential for this. Sources
can be all kinds of remains from the past:
objects, buildings, paintings, but also old
• Historygivesusasenseofidentity,ofour
origin and what we consider important.
• Historyencouragesabetterunderstanding
6
Two sources about the Battle of Waterloo. On the left you see a skeleton of a soldier
with a bullet between his ribs. On the right, the tricorn worn by Napoleon in the Battle of Waterloo.
It is now kept in a German museum.
Source 3
Keywords
letters, diaries and newspapers.
• Inhistorylessons,youwillinvestigatewhy
people have different opinions. Many women
were burnt in the 16th century because they
were accused of witchcraft. We might say this
is stupid (because witches do not exist!). But
we can also try to understand why people
thought witches existed and why so many
women were burnt as witches, particularly in
that century.
• Thestudyofhistoryinvolvesmuchdiscussion
of what is right or wrong. For example: was it
wrong not to join the resistance movement
during World War II? Thinking about these
questions also helps us determine what is
right or wrong in our time.
The review at the end of each chapter includes
all the keywords with a clear description. They
are helpful when you are preparing for a test.
The keywords from this section are:
sources
Remains from the past, such as objects,
buildings, paintings, photos, old letters, diaries
and newspapers.
history
A subject that investigates how people lived in
the past.
historian
Someone who investigates the past.
7
2
The age of Greeks and Romans
The Greeks
1
Source 1
Introduction
An amphora from around 540 BC.
Around 750 BC, a unique society arose in Athens and elsewhere in Greece. The
ancient Greeks are famous for their architecture and art, their thinking and their type
of government. In their artwork they often depicted stories from the Greek world of
the gods. The world of the gods consisted of one family headed by the god Zeus. The
Greeks believed that Zeus was born in a cave and was raised by divine bees. The
amphora in source 1 shows four men, being stung by these bees all over their bodies.
They had entered the cave looking for honey. However, young Zeus took pity on the
burglars and changed them into birds, so that they could fly away.
This chapter is about Greek history in the age of Greeks and Romans (3000 BC until
500 AD). The age of Greeks and Romans is also called ancient times or antiquity.
30
Source 2
Map of the alliances of Sparta and Athens during the Peloponnesian War.
MACEDONIA
Troy
Olympus
AEGEAN
SEA
PERSIAN
EMPIRE
IONIAN
SEA
ATTICA
Athens
Peloponnese
MESSENIA
Athens and Delian League in 431 BC
allies of Athens
Sparta and allies
neutrals
ACHARNIAN GATE
DIPYLON GATE
SACRED GATE
Athens
PIRAEUS GATE
.
(ca
450
)
BC
harbour
Source 3
Athens in the 5th century BC.
31
W
(it all o
sp f
os Pha
sib le
le ron
co
ur
se
)
km
.35
of 6
l
l
a
)
gw
BC
45
Lon
a. 4
c
(
l
al
gw
Lon
Acropolis
Wall of
T h e m ist o c l e s
Chapter 2
Key facts
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
2
Life in a Greek city-state
The great temple of Athens
is situated on the Acropolis.
stoa
court
Source 1
The Athenians meet
in the agora to trade
and gossip.
The Pnyx: Athenian
citizens hold
meetings here.
The agora (the square) in the polis of Athens in the 5th century BC.
Most Greek cities arose at a location that was easy to defend. As you can see in source 1,
the Athenian Acropolis is on a hill. ‘Acropolis’ literally means: high city. In difficult times
people living outside the city could find refuge here. The main temples were here too. The
agora, which means ‘gathering place’ in Greek, was next to the Acropolis. Men gathered
in the shade of the stoai (porticoes, or galleries with columns) to tell and hear the latest
news and to trade goods. The court, too, was next to the agora. 400 metres from the agora
the men gathered to talk about politics. Important decisions were made on Pnyx Hill.
Greek cities differed in many respects, but there were also similarities.
The question is: what was daily life like in a Greek city-state?
32
This tomb was made for Archestrate.
Her name is inscribed at the top of the temple.
She is sitting under her name. Two grieving
relatives or slaves are standing behind her.
Source 3
This amphora shows how olives
are picked. The olive tree is one of the few
trees that bear fruit on rocky and barren
terrain.
Source 2
City-states
valleys and in some towns along the coast. Yet
most Greeks made a living as farmers. They grew
mainly grain, grapes and olives. They also traded
to make sure that there was enough food for
everyone. The Greeks were good builders of ships
and they traded all around the Mediterranean Sea.
They sold clay pots, wine and olive oil, so that they
could buy grain from elsewhere.
Working on the land and trading were jobs for men.
A man was at the head of the family and provided
an income. He decided who his daughters could
marry and he could disinherit his sons. Only boys
were educated. They learned to do sums, writing
and reading. Sports were an important part of their
upbringing. Boys from poor families received less
education than boys from rich families.
In rich families women were at the head of the
household. They kept an eye on the domestic
slaves and looked after the money. Daughters were
raised by their mothers to become wives. Girls were
allowed to marry from 14 years of age.
Various city-states arose in Greece around 750 BC.
A city-state consisted of a city with surrounding
land, and was called a polis (plural: poleis). These
city-states were separated from each other by
mountain ranges and water. There were about
700 poleis in all of Greece. An average polis had
1000 inhabitants. Only Athens and Sparta were
much larger. Each polis in ancient Greece decided
about its local government and which rules they
would have. The population felt very attached
to their polis. Because the Greeks were of the
same descent, they all spoke the same language,
worshipped the same gods and shared the same
architectural style. Yet they considered themselves
primarily residents of the polis, and felt Greek in
the second place.
Daily life
Fertile soil was scarce in Greece. The soil was only
suitable for the cultivation of crops in the mountain
33
Bronze statuette from
the 6th century BC, found on the
Peloponnese (Sparta). If you look
closely you see that the shepherd
is holding a lamb under his cloak.
Source 5
A Greek bronze panoply (plate-armour)
and helmet from ca. 340-330 BC.
Source 4
A Greek’s weaponry consisted of a
panoply, a helmet, a belt and leg
guards. Originally this weaponry
had a gold colour. It was made not
only to protect the horseman’s
body, but also to make an
overwhelming impression on
the opponent! At the side of
the helmet, bits of tubing
are visible in which plumes
and feathers were inserted.
And the impressive muscles
on the armour are there for a
reason too. The Greeks found
their weaponry so important,
that they wanted it to be
buried alongside them after
they had died.
Inequality
In the polis of Sparta, daily life was quite different.
The Spartans had conquered their neighbouring
country Messenia in the 8th century BC. From then
on the residents of this fertile area were owned
by Sparta. They were called helots. Helots were
allowed to continue working on their own land.
There was only one problem: there were more
Messenians than Spartans.
In order to control them, Sparta was totally focused
on fighting wars. Seven-year-old Spartan boys were
conscripted into military training, where they were
put in a ‘herd’ (class) of peers of the same age.
They were trained to endure pain, hunger, thirst,
cold and lack of sleep.
They completed their military service when they
were 30. If they had done well and completed
everything, they were given a piece of land that
was cultivated by slaves.
Spartan girls were raised by their mothers. They
married when they were between 18 and 20
years old. They did not have to do housework
themselves: the helots did it for them.
In Greece people had different rights. There
was inequality between free people and slaves.
Slavery was quite normal in ancient Greece. A
slave was someone’s property and did not have
any rights. You were a slave if your parents were
slaves or if you had been made a prisoner of war.
Slaves worked in the mines, as rowers on ships,
as housekeepers or teachers. Occasionally slaves
were released or they could buy their freedom.
There were also differences between free people.
In many poleis civil rights only belonged to rich
free men who had land and weaponry. Only citizens
were allowed to decide in the politics of the polis.
Poor free men, foreigners and women were not.
Because the helots did all the work on the land, the
Spartans no longer had to work as farmers. Only
the Spartans who had completed military training
and service were given civil rights.
34
Chapter 2
Key facts
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
3
Local government: Athens and Sparta
The Council of Elders of Sparta examines a newborn baby. The bronze statuette of a running
Spartan girl originates from around 500 BC.
Source 1
It was stated in Spartan law that a woman should be able to run, to wrestle, and to throw
the discus and the javelin. Once every four years, in Olympia a running race was organised
for unmarried Greek girls in honour of the goddess Hera (Zeus’ wife). Especially many
Spartan girls took part.
Spartan women had to be strong and healthy to bear children who would later become
healthy soldiers and mothers. Health and strength were so important to the Spartans that
all newborn Spartan babies were examined by the Council of Elders. This council decided
whether a child was strong enough. If it was, it was allowed to live. And if it wasn’t? Then it
was left to die in the Taigetos Mountains.
The question is: how was local government organised in Athens and Sparta?
35
Source 2
The Athenian local government around 500 BC.
Day-to-day government
50 people
10 generals
Lead the army
and the fleet
appoint
each month
This ostrakon (piece of pottery) has
the name Themistocles scratched in it.
Source 3
Judges
Punish people
who do not
obey the rules
After the introduction of democracy, the
Athenian citizens were afraid that one person
would seize power again. Each year it was
decided in the national assembly whether they
should hold an ostracism. During an ostracism
the citizens would scratch the name of a suspect
person on a broken piece of pottery. The person
who was given the most ‘votes’ would then be
banned (ostracised) from Athens for a number
of years.
Council of 500
500 people
Prepare bills
elect
for 1 year
elect for 1 year
by drawing lots
elect for 1 year
by drawing lots
National assembly
All citizens over 18
- Decide on war and peace
- Conclude alliances
- Approve or reject bills
- May vote someone out
once a year (ostracism)
Politics in Athens
Around 590 BC new laws were adopted in Athens
so that from then on ‘ordinary’ citizens also had
to fight in the army. They then also wanted to
be allowed to decide on issues such as war and
peace. In 508 BC that moment arrived. All Athenian
men over 18 who had civil rights were now allowed
to decide in the national assembly. Athens had
thus become a democracy: the people had the
power. The assembly met around forty times a year.
In source 2 you can see the assembly’s tasks.
At first the democracy did not yet work so well,
because many poor Athenians did not show up.
Around 460 BC the Athenian commander of the
army Pericles thought of a solution. From now on
the citizens would be given a day’s pay if they
attended the assembly.
Our word ‘politics’ comes from the concept ‘polis’.
Politics includes everything that is related to
ruling a country or a city. Local government can
be organized in different ways. In the beginning
the Greek poleis often were monarchies. This was
also the case in Athens. In a monarchy, a king
Source 1inherits
xxx
(monarch)
the power from his predecessor.
The Council of Elders (wise old men) helped him to
govern the people.
Frequently there were disagreements between
the Greek poleis. These conflicts were fought out
by heavily armed soldiers. They were rich men,
who paid for their own weaponry. In return for
protecting their polis they were given a say in local
government. This is how the aristocracy came
about. ‘Aristoi’ means noblemen or the best. A few
times a year these noblemen met in the assembly
and made joint decisions. They were advised by
the Council of Elders, like the king was previously.
Sometimes one man managed to take control of all
power. This is called a tyranny.
36
Source 4
Heavily armed soldiers are fighting beside a friend who was killed in action.
(Detail of a Corinthian vase from 625-600 BC)
Politics in Sparta
The Peloponnesian War
Like in Athens, in Sparta there was a national
assembly. All Spartan men over 30 participated in
making decisions about the polis. Until they turned
30, Spartans did not have any time for politics,
because they first had to do their military training
and service. Once a year the assembly elected five
Source
1 xxx
men
who took
care of the day-to-day government.
There were also two hereditary kings in Sparta.
They led the army in wartime. There where two of
them, so that the great Spartan army would still
have a commander if one of them were to be killed.
In peacetime the two kings were priests and they
administered justice. The kings were monitored by
the day-to-day government.
The assembly also elected 28 men to sit on the
Council of Elders. These men, who were over 60,
advised the kings and the day-to-day government
until they died.
Athens and Sparta were very different, but both
were very successful in their own ways. Both
Athens and Sparta wanted to be the most powerful
and the strongest in Greece. In previous wars the
two poleis had worked together, but in 431 BC it
went wrong.
Athens and Sparta each had their own alliances.
Athens tried to make one of Sparta’s allies change
sides. Sparta responded with an attack on Attica,
which was Athenian territory. This is how the
Peloponnesian War began. This war was named
after the Peloponnese peninsula, where the
Spartans lived.
The sides were well matched: it took almost thirty
years before the Spartans were able to defeat
the Athenians. In 405 BC Sparta destroyed the
Athenian fleet. As a result, grain could no longer
be transported to Athens. A year later a severely
weakened Athens had to admit defeat. Athens’
power was broken forever.
37
Chapter 2
Key facts
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
4
The Greek gods
4
5
3
6
2
1
7
Source
Source 11 xxx
A procession for the goddess Athena.
‘From afar I can hear the crowds. They are making music and above all I hear the sound
of the aulos [flute]. I am waiting at the altar, watching the procession as it arrives at the
temple. The animals are painted and the people are wearing garlands. A man with a water
jug and a woman carrying a bowl of grain on her head are approaching me. I accept the jug
and take the knife that is hidden among the grain out of the bowl. All fall silent. I sprinkle
a bull and a goat with water and grain. Then I hit them on the head and I cut the throats of
the animals. The bones and fat are burnt as a sacrifice to satisfy the goddess Athena. The
meat is prepared for all the people who are present. What a feast!’
The question is: what role did gods play in Greek society?
38
Nike crowns an athlete with an olive
branch. Nike was the goddess of victory in
sports, but also in war.
Source 2
In the temple on the Acropolis of
Athens there was a marble statue of Athena,
decorated in gold and silver. Athena can be
recognised by her shield. She is carrying Nike in
her hand. (Roman copy from the 2nd century.)
Source 3
Greek gods
gods were immortal and had the power to decide
on the lives of people.
Like the Egyptians the Greeks believed in more
than one god. They therefore had a polytheistic
religion. The Greeks believed that their gods and
Source 1 each
xxx had their own tasks. In Greece,
goddesses
nature could be quite violent: volcanic eruptions,
floods, storms and lightning. The Greeks thought
that this was the work of the gods. The Greeks also
believed that the gods decided if you became ill,
had a good marriage, had children, et cetera.
Zeus, the supreme god, was the god of heaven,
thunder and lightning. One of his brothers,
Poseidon, ruled the seas. His other brother, Hades,
ruled the underworld. Zeus was married to Hera,
the goddess of marriage. The Greek gods also had
children. Athena, the goddess of martial art and
wisdom, was one of Zeus’ daughters. The Greek
gods formed one large family.
The Greek gods were just like people. They were
happy, angry, sad, in love and jealous. But the
Worshipping the gods
The Greeks built altars to worship their gods. An
altar was like a high table on which sacrifices were
laid, such as wine, fruit, animals and sometimes
gold and silver. There were altars in the homes of
the Greeks and in the fields. Later the inhabitants
of a polis also built temples in which they might
worship, for example, the patron gods and
goddesses of the city. Often there was a beautiful
idol in a temple. Priests worked in the temples.
They were appointed by the local government of a
polis to offer sacrifices on behalf of all residents.
That is how the Greek gods were honoured and put
in a good mood.
People also organised celebrations and sports
competitions for the gods. The most famous sports
competitions were the ‘games’ for Zeus in the
39
The birth of the goddess Athena is
portrayed on this Greek stamp (1974).
Source 4
On this beaker (500 BC) you see an
event from the Iliad. After a battle during the
Trojan War, the hero Achilles bandages his best
friend Patroklos.
Zeus kept falling in love and had many
sweethearts. He also fell very much in love with
Metis, the goddess of wisdom. Zeus was told
that Metis’ children would be smarter and more
powerful than himself. Zeus therefore ate Metis.
After that day he had terrible headaches. He
asked the god Hephaestus to open his head. To
their great surprise, a beautiful and fully-grown
girl came out of his head. Athena, the goddess
of war and wisdom, was born. You can see the
god Poseidon left on the stamp (recognizable
by his trident). Aphrodite, the goddess of love,
and Ares, the god of war (recognizable by his
weaponry), are on the right.
Source 5
Myths
small city of Olympia, more commonly known as
the Olympic Games. From 776 BC these games
were held every four years to thank Zeus for all
the victories. In Olympia games for Hera were also
Source 1every
xxx four years.
organised
The Greeks believed that the gods sent them signs
to communicate messages. A thunderstorm could
be one of those signs from the gods. In order to be
able to ‘translate’ these messages from the gods
correctly, the people consulted oracles. An oracle
is a sanctuary where a god makes a prophecy or
prediction through a priest(ess). The prediction
itself was also called an oracle. The problem
caused by these prophesies was that they were
rather puzzling. They could be interpreted in more
than one way. If someone speaks gibberish today,
we might also say they ‘speak like an oracle’.
The Greeks told each other all sorts of stories
about gods, demigods and heroes. These stories
about the gods are called myths. Very often an
event that had actually happened was the start of a
myth. A myth could also give an explanation of the
name of a town, for instance. As the stories were
told and passed on for centuries, they became
more and more exciting and many details were
added. The Greek mythology contains all the Greek
stories about their gods.
The Greek poet Homer wrote down two very wellknown myths in the 8th century BC: the Iliad and
Odyssey. The Iliad is about the war in Troy. The
Odyssey is about the wanderings of King Odysseus
after the Trojan War. From these stories we can
learn what the Greeks considered important and
how they thought about their gods.
40
Chapter 2
Key facts
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
5
Greek culture
Plato (427-347 BC)
Aristotle (384-322 BC)
Socrates (470-399 BC)
Pythagoras (572-ca. 500 BC)
Apelles (4th century BC)
Source
Source1 1 The
xxx School of Athens by Raphael Santi (1509-1510).
Have a close look at source 1. In the bottom left corner you can see someone secretly
copying the great Greek mathematician Pythagoras’ notes. And that is not the only
joke Raphael, the Italian painter, made in this painting. He has included himself as
well. Of course not as himself: he portrayed the Greek artist Apelles with his ‘face’. The
philosopher Plato and his student Aristotle are debating in the centre of the painting.
A little to the left you see another well-known philosopher: Socrates, who is always asking
tough questions.
Raphael has tried to combine all the great Greek thinkers, scientists and artists in one
piece of art. He created it in the 16th century, especially for the pope’s residence in Rome.
He called it Philosophy, which means friend (filos) of wisdom (sofia). Over time, the
painting has become known as The School of Athens.
The question is: why are Greek art and science so highly appreciated?
41
The athlete is
tying ribbons round his head
to celebrate: he has just won
a competition.
Source 4
Picture from about 2300
BC of an Egyptian couple: Katep and
Hetepheres.
Source 2
(A Roman copy of the Greek statue
from 440-430 BC).
A Greek
statuette of a young
man (kouros) from the
6th century BC.
Source 3
Greek culture
Mathematical calculations were needed to achieve
this.
Much mathematics was also applied to the design
of theatres. The Greek theatres were open-air
theatres, where thousands of people could come
and watch plays. The theatres were built so that
even people in the top rows could hear the softest
voices from the stage.
Culture is everything that is made and invented
by a society, for instance art. It includes
buildings, statues, paintings, stories and plays.
Source
1 also
xxx belongs to culture. We have
But
science
adopted much from Greek culture.
The art of the Greeks has often been copied over
the centuries. In turn the Greeks had studied
the Egyptians well. The Egyptian statues were
beautiful, but they did not look very lifelike. And
that is what the Greeks found important. Their
statues had to be perfect. That made them divine.
Therefore sculptors studied the human body from
top to toe: muscles, face and movement. Their
statues show perfect bodies. Often the statues
represent gods or sportsmen and women.
In their architecture the Greeks tried to achieve
perfection, too. The temples for the gods had to
be as beautiful as possible. Height, width and
depth of the temple had to be of good proportions.
Science
The Greeks were curious and tried to find
explanations for everything. At first they found
those explanations in their myths. Later, scholars
looked for answers in nature itself. If there was
a thunderstorm, it was not because Zeus was
angry, but because of a natural cause. Many
Greeks thought that if they became ill, it was a
punishment of the gods. Hippocrates (ca. 460-377
BC) discovered that some diseases had an entirely
different cause. He noticed that people became ill
42
A mask in a comic play from the 4th or
3rd century BC.
Source 5
In Greece only men could act in plays. Each actor
played multiple roles, including women’s roles.
They wore masks to show the audience who
they were representing. There was a large hole
in the mask, so that the actors could be heard
clearly. This mask was made for a comical play.
Tragic plays, especially, are still performed,
also in the Netherlands. Their themes are
very familiar to us. The
plays are about love,
jealousy, betrayal,
revenge and
death. Today
the plays are
not performed
to please the
gods, and the
female roles
are played by
women.
The Greeks often sacrificed a
sculp-ture of a healed body part to Asclepius,
the god of medicine. The Greek Tyche made
the sacrifice of a leg in thanks (AD 100-200).
Source 6
Philosophy
if they lived unhealthy lives or if they did not look
after themselves. Hippocrates taught his students
to study the human body and people’s behaviour
very closely.
Source
1 xxx wanted to know everything about
Greek
scientists
man, nature and the universe. One scientist
suspected that the world consisted of very small
particles: atoms. These researchers could not yet
prove their ideas, but it was the starting point
of various sciences, such as mathematics and
physics. Science means gathering knowledge by
studying phenomena in detail. Scientists look for
explanations and try to find proofs.
Herodotus (484-425 BC) also tried to gather as
much knowledge as possible, but in this case
about history. The Greek word historia literally
means research. For instance, Herodotus studied
the wars between the Persians and Greeks. In
his description of the wars he tried not to choose
sides.
Instead of studying nature, some scholars asked
questions about what people do and think, such
as what is right and wrong? What is beauty? How
do we know what is true? What is the best form of
government? We call these thinkers philosophers.
The philosopher Socrates (470-399 BC) tried to
teach people by asking them questions. Only when
you have acquired much knowledge, will you be
able to make correct decisions, he thought. In the
polis of Athens, Socrates was considered a danger.
He was said to have a bad influence on young
people. Socrates was dragged before the court and
sentenced to death: he had to drink a poisoned
cup.
43
Chapter 2
Key facts
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
6
The Greeks and their neighbours
Marathon
Large swamp
Persian camp
the Persian army
the Greek army
Persian fleet
Greek camp
Source 1
The Battle of Marathon in 490 BC.
In 491 BC, the Persian King Darius sent a messenger to Greece. The messenger asked
the Greeks to hand over some ‘earth and water’ to the Persians. The answer from
the Athenians was clear: the messenger was killed. Darius demanded revenge and
immediately sent a fleet of 600 ships, packed with troops, to Athens. They went ashore
near the city of Marathon, where they were met by the Greek army. The first days nothing
happened. Darius thought he was being clever and secretly sent part of his fleet to Athens
in the middle of the night. The Greeks, who were still in the minority, managed to beat the
remaining Persian troops without any difficulty. They then marched to Athens as quickly as
possible and arrived there at the same time as the Persian fleet. The Persians realized that
they had lost and retreated, but not for long …
The question is: what was the relationship like between the Greeks and their neighbouring
countries?
44
Source 2
The Greek colonisation between 750 and 550 BC.
BLACK SEA
Sicily
Rhodes
M
ED
Crete
ITE
RRANEAN SEA
Greek poleis
region with much Greek influence
regions with little Greek influence
Colonisation
At war with the Persians
In the 8th and 7th century BC the population in the
Greek poleis grew. Because there was not much
fertile soil in Greece, food shortages grew quickly.
Part of the population was therefore sent on an
Source 1 toxxx
expedition
other towns in the Mediterranean
to found new Greek settlements (colonies). This
happened for instance on the Turkish west coast,
in the south of Italy and in Sicily. There was much
trade between the various poleis and the colonies.
The founding of settlements outside Greece in the
8th and 7th century BC is called colonisation.
If the Greeks settled somewhere, they kept their
own language, culture and gods. The languages
and customs of the peoples they met, were
often strange to them. The language of those
strangers, according to the Greeks, sounded like
‘barbarbarbar…’. For this reason the Greeks began
to call the strangers barbarians.
The Persian king planned to add the Greek colonies
on the Turkish coast to his kingdom. The poleis in
Turkey, however, received support from Athens.
Then the Persians organised two major campaigns
against all the Greeks. It became a clash between
two worlds. On the one side there was the divided
Greek world: a group of small poleis. On the other
side there was the enormous Persian Empire, ruled
strictly by one king. On the one side there were the
small land armies of the Greek poleis with soldiers
who were their own citizens. On the other side
there was the enormous Persian army. Most of its
troops belonged to peoples they had conquered
before.
The divided Greeks decided to work together
under Athenian leadership and managed to
defeat the Persians. In 480 BC the Athenian fleet
finally defeated the Persian fleet near the town
of Salamis. In 479 BC the Persian land army was
also trampled by the Greeks and the war was over.
45
The trireme is a Greek war ship that is propelled
by rowers. The Athenian ships could change direction more
easily than the Persians’ large ships.
Source 3
Source 4
Alexander the Great in action against the Persians at the Battle of Issus (333 BC).
Alexander the Great fulfilled his father’s great desire: he
defeated the Persian Empire. In this relief, which was originally
on a sarcophagus (a stone coffin), you see Alexander in action
in the Battle of Issus. The sarcophagus was probably made for a
Persian nobleman.
To the left on the prancing horse you see Alexander the Great. At
the time he was 23 years old. He can be recognised by the lion’s
head on his head. Alexander believed he was a descendant of the
hero Heracles. In one of the Greek myths Heracles kills a lion. He
then wears its skin as a cloak and its head as a helmet.
The Persians were then driven from the cities on
the Turkish coast. At this time the word ‘barbaric’
acquired the meaning of ‘uncivilised’ for the
Greeks.
Scholars also joined his army on its journeys. On
his journey Alexander founded new cities, such
as Alexandria in Egypt. After Alexander’s death
Alexandria became one of the most important
research centres at that time. Mainly Greek
scholars worked there.
Alexander wanted all nations in his kingdom to
become one nation. So he adopted customs from
all cultures. For instance, they had to follow the
Egyptian custom and kneel before him and address
him as if he were a god. He also married three
Persian princesses. He encouraged his soldiers to
marry girls from captured territories. Nevertheless
the Greek culture remained most important in
Alexander the Great’s Empire. Because the Greeks
called their own country Hellas, we refer to the
civilisation in the kingdom of Alexander and his
successors as Hellenism. Thanks to Alexander
the Great, the Greek culture spread across an
enormous region.
Hellenism
In 338 BC King Philip of Macedonia conquered
Greece. Macedonia lies north of Greece. Philip
could easily conquer the Greek poleis, because
after the Peloponnesian Wars (431-404 BC) the
Greeks were still weak and divided. The king
then wanted to conquer the Persian Empire with
a large Greek army. Before he could begin, he
was assassinated. His son Alexander the Great
succeeded him and carried out his plans. Between
336 and 323 BC Alexander not only defeated the
Persians, but also conquered Egypt and many other
regions, even as far as India.
Alexander the Great was taught by the philosopher
Aristotle. Science was very important to him.
46
Chapter 2
Close-up
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
7
Going to school in Athens
Our word ‘school’ is derived from the Greek word scholazo. Strangely enough, it means
‘free time’. Would that mean that children in ancient Greece loved school? No, another
translation of scholazo is: to be exempted from work. And of course that was the case:
if you went to school, you did not have to work. Athenian parents found education very
important for their sons. Girls did not have to go to school. They stayed at home with their
mothers where they learned housekeeping and how to become good wives.
Most boys went to school between the ages 7 and 14. All schools were private schools:
parents had to pay for education. Fortunately it was not very expensive, so that poor
Athenians could send their sons to school too. Schools were usually small (twenty pupils)
and often only had one classroom. There the boys would sit on low benches. All they had
was a little board to write on. If they did not behave, the teacher would slap them.
The question is: what did Athenian students learn at school?
Source 1
Reading, writing and music.
In the middle of this beaker from ca. 485 BC you see a teacher holding a wax tablet
in his hand.
The student standing in front of him is being tested. Hopefully he has learned his
homework well enough! Athenian students had to learn long chapters of important
Greek poets by heart. Those poems told them about the history and culture of the
Greeks.
To the left you see a music teacher playing the aulos (flute) while a student is
singing. Learning how to sing was the most important part of music lessons. Each
boy had to be able to sing in the choirs during the festivals in honour of the gods.
It was also a good preparation for speaking to the assembly.
47
Source 2
Gymnastics.
Sports were a very important
subject in Athenian schools.
Therefore the boys went to the
‘gymnasium’ in the afternoons.
Literally gymnasium means: a
place where you go in the nude.
The students were always nude
when they practiced sports. They
rubbed their bodies with olive oil.
The Greeks admired a trained body.
Sports were considered beneficial
for body and mind. And of course,
strong men were important in the
Athenian army.
The author of the Iliad and Odyssey:
Homer. (Statue from the 1st or 2nd century AD)
Source 3
Source 4
48
The ancient Greek alphabet.
Chapter 2
The age of Greeks and Romans • The Greeks
8
Review
What should you know and be able to do?
You should be able to explain:
A Citizenship in the Greek city-state
• whichformsofgovernmentexist;
• howAthensandSpartaweregoverned;
• whatweretheviewsofcivilrightsinAthensand
Sparta.
• thatgodswereveryimportanttotheGreeks;
• howtheGreeksdevelopedscientificthinking;
• howtheGreekculturespread;
• whatyoucanstillseetodayofancientGreek
culture.
Skill
You should be able to handle the concepts
‘cause’ and ‘consequence’. Historians aim to
answer the questions why something happened
(cause) and what happened as a result of an event
(consequence).
B Culture and scientific thinking in the Greek
city-state
• whatissospecialaboutGreekcultureinthe5th
century – think of (religious) customs, science,
literatureandart;
Keywords
aristocracy
A form of government in which a small group of
people with privileges (noblemen) are in power.
barbarian
Stranger, later: not civilised.
civil rights (among the Greeks)
The rights given to the landowning inhabitants
of a polis. In a democracy, men with civil rights
were allowed to govern the city.
colonisation (in ancient Greece)
The founding of Greek settlements outside
Greece in the 8th and 7th century BC.
culture
Anything created and invented by a society
such as customs and traditions, forms of art
(architecture, sculpture, literature and plays)
and science.
democracy
A form of government in which the people
(demos) decide by voting who should be rulers.
In Athens only men with civil rights could
participate in democracy.
Greek gods
The Greeks believed that their gods determined
life and death and that the whole world was
governed by their natural forces. The Greek
gods formed one large family.
Hellenism
The predominantly Greek civilisation that arose
in the empire of Alexander the Great and his
successors. The Greeks called their country
Hellas.
inequality
Differences between people in property, power
or rights.
monarchy
A form of government led by a king who inherits
his power.
myth
A story about gods or demigods, or a story that
is considered true but is not entirely based on
facts.
Olympic Games
A sporting contest for all the Greeks to honour
the supreme god Zeus, organised in Olympia
once every four years from 776 BC onwards.
49
Source 1
oracle
A sanctuary where a god makes a prophecy
through a priest(ess). The prophecy itself is
also called an oracle.
philosopher
Someone looking for wisdom and knowledge to
understand more about the world and man.
polis (plural: poleis)
A Greek city-state, consisting of a city and its
surroundings.
science
Gathering knowledge by studying a
phenomenon. Scientists look for explanations
and try to find proofs.
slavery
A system in which people are owned by
someone else and therefore are not free and do
not have rights.
tyranny
A form of government where all the power is
held by one person.
Comedy or tragedy?
This vase (ca. 350-325 BC) shows a scene in
a play. It is a comedy in which the gods are
ridiculed. To the left you see Zeus holding
a ladder. He is on his way to one of his
sweethearts (in the centre). The god Hermes
tries to help him and holds up a light.
The Concertgebouw was opened in Amsterdam in 1888.
The building has a neoclassical (new-classic) style.
Source 2
50
Timeline
Source 3
Ca. 750 BC
Rise of Greek poleis
and beginning of
Greek colonisation
Leonidas.
3300 BC
AGE OF GREEKS AND ROMANS
3000 BC–AD 500
3000 BC
EGYPTIAN KINGDOM
The film 300 (from 2006) is about the Spartan
King Leonidas, who had to defend the
Thermopylae mountain pass against the Persian
army. The Spartans were attacked from behind
after the Greek Ephialtes betrayed them. They
fought like lions, but in the end all 300 were
killed.
Imme Dros, the author of children’s
books, adapted the books by the Greek poet
Homer about the hero Odysseus to turn them into
exciting stories for children.
Source 4
508 BC.
Athens becomes a
democracy
490-479 BC
Persian Wars
1
ROMANS
332 BC
200 BC
GREEK POLEIS
750 BC
431-404 BC
Peloponnesian War
336-323 BC
The spread of Greek
culture by Alexander
the Great
500
1000
51
today↓
Ca. 200 BC
The Romans conquer
the Greek poleis