Download Introduction - Gilbert Science

Integrated Science Full Review
2015-2016 Amended Edition
Nathan Gilbert
Introduction
Science – a system of knowledge based on facts and principles
3 Main Branches of Science
1. Physical (Chemistry, Physics)
2. Life (Biology)
3. Earth/Space
Scientific Method – Observe, Question, Data, Hypothesis, Experiment, Data & Observations, Conclude
Hypothesis – an educated guess at the results of the experiment
Scientific Theory vs. Scientific Law
Law – summary of natural events that can be continually proven by experiments
Theory – summary of natural event with evidence but can’t be proven by experiments
Technology – applied science
Model – used to represent an idea or object unable to be observed directly
Observation – the process of gathering information via the senses
Variable – factor that can cause a change in the results of an experiment
Constant – a variable that does not change when others do
Control – standard used for comparison
Conversions – transferring a measurement from one unit into another
SI System – System International (metric) used in almost all science
- Know basic units for each measurement type
- Know conversion factors for mega, kilo, deci, centi, milli, micro, nano, pico
- Derived Units – metric units made up of two or more bases (ex: m/s, g/mL)
Types of Graphs – Bar, Line (including scatter plots), Pie (Circle)
Interpreting Graphs
Variables and Axis
Independent Variable – on X (horizontal) Axis (usually time if that is a variable)
Dependent Variable – on Y (vertical) Axis, depends on independent variable
Pay attention to axis titles and units
Significant Figures
1. All non-zeros are significant
2. Zeros between non-zeros are significant
3. Trailing zeros in a number with a decimal are significant
4. Leading zeros are NOT significant
Scientific Notation – allows you to write big numbers in a small format
Step 1. Move the decimal to the right of the number furthest to the left that isn’t zero
Step 2. Count how many places you moved the decimal
a) If you moved the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive
b) If you moved the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative
Examples: 582,000 = 5.82 x 105 or 0.00000013 = 1.3 x 10-7
Precision – measurements that are close together, consistency
Accuracy – measurements that are close to the accepted value
APA Formatting
1” margins each side
Font: Arial, Times New Roman, or Calibri and size 10-12
For science no personal nouns or pronouns
Double space all pages
Header has all caps title top left (“Running head:” page 1) and page number top right
Title page includes title, author, organization, instructor, and date, all bold and centered
Abstract page has bold, centered “Abstract” and a short, non-indented paragraph summary of the paper, including results.
Lab Report includes the sections: Title, Introduction, Materials, Procedures, Data and Observations, Discussion, Conclusion
Bibliography page has bold, centered “Bibliography.”
References include author, date, title italicized with only first word capitalized, city, publisher, date retrieved (web)
Chemistry
Chemistry – study of matter and how it changes
Matter – anything that has mass and takes up space
Law of Conservation of Matter – matter cannot be created or destroyed
Law of Conservation of Energy – energy cannot be created or destroyed
Atom – smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of it
Nucleus – center of atom contain protons and neutrons with an overall positive charge
Subatomic Particles – 3 small parts of the atom
Protons – Positive charge found in the nucleus
Neutrons – Neutral charge found in the nucleus
Electron – Small negative charge found in clouds outside of nucleus
Valence electron – electron on highest energy level
Atomic Theories
Democritus – came up with concept of an atom
Dalton’s Atomic Theory - all substances made of tiny particles that cannot be subdivided (wrong)
Bohr’s Model – electrons orbit around nucleus like planets around sun
Modern Theory – electrons vibrate between energy levels
Electron Energy Levels – Electrons have a high probability of acting on certain levels
Order – 1S, 2S, 2P, 3S, 3P, 4S, 4D, 4P, 5S, 5D, 5P…
- Where S can hold 2 electrons, p 6, d 10, f 14
Shortcut to highest level by looking at period (periodic table row) by relabeled group (column)
Octet rule – 8 valence electrons to be stable
Electron Configuration – arrows demonstrating spin of electrons by energy level
Electron Orbitals – Circles demonstrating energy levels of electrons
Pure vs. Impure Substances
Pure substances (elements/compounds) are in exact ratios vs Impure (mixtures) which are not
Element – pure substance with elements that are all alike (ex: C {carbon}, He {Helium})
Most abundant in humans is Oxygen
Most abundant in earth is Iron
Most abundant in atmosphere is Nitrogen
Key elements 1-36, Ag, Au, Hg, and Pb (know name, symbol, atomic #, uses of most)
Period Table – arranged by number of protons
4 Important Families (related sections of the table)
1 – Alkali – very reactive metals that form salts with halogens (group 1)
 Explode in water
2 – Alkaline Earth – reactive metals (group 2)
3 – Halogens – poisonous reactive nonmetals that form salts with alkalis (group 17)
 Used in cleaning supplies
4 – Noble Gases – stable gases (group 18)
 Used in storage of materials
Developed by Mendelev with Atomic Mass
Edited by Moseley by Atomic Number
Periods – horizontal rows
Groups – vertical columns
Periodic Table Regions
Metals – left side, mostly solids, shiny, malleable, conduct heat and electricity
Nonmetals – right side, mostly gases, brittle, poor conductors of heat and electricity
Metalloids – along stairstep, mixed metal and nonmetal properties
Compound – pure substance formed of atoms of multiple elements chemically bonded together (ex: H2O, NaCl)
Mixture – a combination of more than one pure substance
Miscible – liquid dissolves in liquid (ex: alcohol in water)
Immiscible – liquid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: oil in water)
Homogenous – solid dissolves in liquid (ex: salt in water)
Heterogeneous – solid won’t dissolve in liquid (ex: flour in water)
Gas dissolved in liquid (ex: CO2 in soft drinks)
Physical vs. Chemical Change
Physical Change – any change that does not change the chemical identity (ex: ice melting, tearing paper)
Chemical Change – any change that does change the chemical identity (ex: chemical reaction, rust, burn)
Physical vs. Chemical Property
Physical Property – can be observed with a physical change (ex: change of state, malleability)
Chemical Property – observation requires a chemical change (ex: flammability, reactivity)
Density – physical property of mass per volume
Equation – D = m/V
Buoyancy – less dense items float, more dense items sink
Viscosity – Resistance of a fluid to flow (ex: molasses more viscous than water)
Ionic vs. Covalent Bonding
Ionic – electrons are donated
Name using metal followed by nonmetal with –ide ending
For transition metals include charge in roman numerals after metal name
Cation – positively charged ions
Anion – negatively charged ions
Oxidation Number – number that indicates how many electrons gained or lost by an atom
Polyatomic Ions – charged group of atoms, know 16 primary name, formula, and charge
PO43-,CN-, SO42-, ClO2-, CH3COO-, O22-, HS-, C6H5COO-, CrO42-, OH-, CO32-, NO3-, MnO4-, ClO3-, NO2- SO32-
Covalent – electrons are shared
Diatom – two atoms of the same element bonded together
Name using least electromagnetic first with –ide ending, include the number of atoms of each element
Chemical Equation – a symbolic representation of a reaction
Reactants – ingredients placed on the left of the equation
Products – final results of a reaction on the right of the equation
Yield – arrow representing the direction of the reaction, similar to an equal sign of the equation
4 Basic Reactions and Combustion
Synthesis – A + B → AB (ex: Na + Cl → NaCl)
Decomposition – AB → A + B (ex: NaCl → Na + Cl)
Single Replacement – AX + B → A + BX (ex: NaCl + Li → Na + LiCl)
Double Replacement – AX + BY → AY + BX (ex: NaCl + LiBr → NaBr + LiCl)
Combustion – Involves the burning of Oxygen
Endothermic Reaction – reaction that requires heat energy to proceed
Exothermic Reaction – reaction in which energy is primarily given off in the form of heat
Catalyst – a substance that speeds up a chemical reaction without being permanently changed itself
Balancing Equations – adding coefficients to each element or compound in an equation
Stoichiometry – using mathematical conversions and balanced equations to predict product and reactant quantities
Method: For predictions of mass or moles, use moler mass and balanced equation
Hydrate – any compound containing water, usually in a definite ratio by weight
Isotope – variation of an element with a specific neutron number
Radioactivity – process that occurs when a nucleus decays
4 Types
1 – Alpha – weakest type stopped by paper, +2 charge, used in smoke detectors, 42 He
2 – Beta – high energy electron, -1 charge, used in radioactive diagnosis tracers, 0-1 e
3 – Gamma – electromagnetic ray, does not require medium, doesn’t ionize, used in cancer treatment
4 – Neutron Emission – high energy neutron released during radioactive decay, strongest type
Half-Life – time it takes for half of a sample to decay
Fusion vs. Fission
Fusion – combining of 2 nuclei
Fission – splitting of a nuclei
Functional Groups – a specific group of atoms that frequently bond in molecules (know list)
- alkane, alkene, alkyne, phenyl, alkyl halide, amine, hydroxyl, ether, aldehyde, ketone, carboxyl, ester, amide
Thermodynamics
Kinetic Theory – as temperature increases particles move faster and spread out
1. All particles are in motion
2. Smaller Particles move faster
3. Warmer Particles move faster
Types of heat transfer
Conduction – heat transfer between two items in contact
Conductor – anything that readily allows the transfer of heat energy (ex: iron)
Insulator – anything that prohibits the transfer of thermal energy (ex: air)
Convection – heat transfer in fluid through currents of hot (less dense) rising and cold falling
Radiation – electromagnetic heat transfer which does not require a medium (material) to travel through
Temperature – measure of the average kinetic energy of the particles in a system
Celsius: C = 5/9 (F – 32) or C = K – 273
Fahrenheit: F = (9/5 C) + 32
Kelvin: K = C + 273
Absolute Zero – temperature of 0 K where particles would stop moving
Specific Heat – the amount of heat required to raise 1 kg of a substance by a degree Celsius
Q = m*(TF-TI)*C
Heat of Fusion – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from solid to liquid
Heat of Vaporization – the amount of energy required to turn one gram of a substance from liquid to gas
Thermal Energy – sum of the kinetic and potential energy of the particles in an object
1st Law of Thermo – the increase in thermal E equals work done on the system plus the thermal E transferred
2nd Law of Thermo – it is impossible for thermal E to flow from a cold object to a warmer object unless work is done
Internal Combustion Engine – intake, compression, power, exhaust
Entropy – a measure of how spread out or dispersed energy is
Forces and Motion
Displacement – the distance and direction of an object’s final position from its initial position
Vector – a quantity showing both size and direction of a motion
Speed – the distance an object travel per unit of time (v = d/t)
Instantaneous Speed – the speed of an object at a single instant in time
Average Speed – the total distance traveled divided by the total travel time
Velocity – the speed of the object and its direction of motion
Acceleration – the change in velocity divided by the change in time (a = (vf-vi)/tf-ti))
Force – a push or pull that one object exerts on another
Net Force – the cumulative force of two objects
Balanced vs. Unbalanced Forces
Balanced Forces – equal and opposite forces having a net force of 0
Unbalanced Forces – forces combine to produce nonzero net force causing acceleration
Friction – the force that opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces that are in contact
Static Friction – frictional force that prevents 2 surfaces from sliding past each other
Sliding Friction – force that acts in the opposite direction to the motion of sliding objects
Air Resistance – friction against an object moving through the air
Terminal Velocity – final velocity where force of air resistance equals gravity
Newtons 1st Law – Only unbalanced forces change motion
Inertia – the tendency of an object to resist a change in motion
Newtons 2nd Law – the acceleration of an object is in the same direction as the net force on the object
Force = mass x acceleration
Newtons 3rd Law – for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction
Momentum – the product of an object’s mass and velocity
Momentum (p) = mass (m) x velocity (v)
Law of Conservation of Momentum – total momentum is conserved within a system
Gravity – the attractive force between two objects based on mass and distance
F = G(m1m2)/d2
Weight v Mass – mass is amount of substance while weigh is how gravity impacts mass
Centripetal Acceleration – acceleration toward the center of a curved circular path
Centripetal Force – net force exerted toward the center of a curved path
Work and Energy
Energy – the ability to do work
Measured in Joules (J)
Kinetic Energy – the energy of a moving object has because of its motion
KE = ½ x mass x velocity2
Potential Energy – stored energy due to potential
Elastic Potential Energy – energy stored by something that can stretch or compress such as a rubber band
Chemical Potential Energy – energy stored in the form of chemical bonds
Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored due to an objects position above the earth
GPE = mass x gravity x height
Mechanical Energy – the total amount of potential and kinetic energy in a system
Project Motion – curved motion of a thrown or hit object as its energy changes between mechanical and potential
Law of Conservation – Energy is conserved but some energy in a system may be lost as heat due to friction
Fusion and Fission – Mass can be converted to energy through the processes of nuclear fusion and fission
Calorie – unit used by nutritionist to measure how much energy comes from various foods
Work – the energy transferred when a force makes an object move, has direction
Work (J) = Force (N) x Distance (m)
Power – the amount of work done in one second or the rate at which work is done
Power (W) = Work (J) / Time (s)
Machine – device that makes doing work easier by multiplying force or changing direction
Work Input = Work Output
Mechanical Advantage – ratio of output force to input force
Mechanical Advantage = output force (Newtons) / input force (Newtons)
Efficiency – a measure of how much of the work put into a machine is change into useful work output
Efficiency (%) = work output (J) / work input (J)
Simple Machine – a machine that does work with only one movement
1. Lever – a bar that is free to pivot or turn around a fixed point
a. 1st Class – fulcrum in center (pry bar)
b. 2nd Class – output force in center (wheelbarrow)
c. 3rd Class – input force in center (baseball bat)
2. Pulley – grooved wheel with a rope, chain, or cable running along it
a. Fixed Pulley – single pulley attached to a fixed position
b. Moveable Pulley – a pulley in which one end of the rope is fixed and the wheel is free to move
c. Block and Tackle – a system of pulleys consisting of both fixed and moveable
3. Wheel and Axel – consists of a shaft or axle attached to the center of a larger wheel and rotate together
Ex: screwdriver, doorknobs, faucets, gears
4. Inclined Planes – a sloping surface that reduces the amount of force required to do work
a. Screw – inclined plane wrapped in a spiral around a cylinder
b. Wedge – an inclined plane with one or two sloping sides
Compound Machine – two or more simple machines that operate together
Waves
Waves – repeating disturbance that transfers energy (not matter)
Mechanical vs. Electromagnetic
Electromagnetic – a wave not requiring a medium (ex: ultraviolet light can pass through outer space)
Mechanical – a wave requiring a medium (ex: sound waves cannot be heard in outer space)
Medium – matter though which energy travels (ex: the medium for an ocean wave is the water)
Transverse vs. Compressional Mechanical Waves
Transverse – wave which energy and matter move perpendicular to each other (up and down)
Example: water wave
Compressional – wave which energy and matter move parallel to each other (long ways)
Example: sound wave
Parts of Waves
Crest – high point of transverse wave
Trough – low point of transverse wave
Compression – compacted part of compressional wave
Rarefaction – less dense or spread out portion of a compressional wave
Normal – middle or rest line
Amplitude – amount of energy transferred by the wave which determines the intensity
- measured from the normal to either the crest or the trough
Wavelength – the distance of one wave (represented by the symbol Lambda {λ})
Period – the time it takes for one wave to pass
Frequency – the number of waves that pass a point each second
- Calculated by f = 1/T where T is the time period
- Units – Hertz (Hz)
- Pitch – human perception of the frequency of sound waves
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Gamma Rays – highest energy, highest frequency, lowest wave length, used to treat cancer
X-Rays – used in medicine
Ultraviolet
Visible Light –
Color SpectrumLights – as lights add together they produce white
- objects can only reflect the colors available in the light
- white light includes all colors of light
Pigments – as pigments add together they produce black
Infrared
Microwaves
Radio Waves – lowest energy, lowest frequency, longest wave length, used for communication (includes TV)
Interactions of waves with the environment
Reflection – bouncing back of a wave (examples: mirrors and sonar)
Law of Reflection – the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection
Real vs. Virtual Image
Real Image – Image seems to pass through (curved mirrors)
Virtual Image – Image seems to be behind mirror (plane mirrors)
Sonar – echolocation (ex: submarines, bats, dolphins)
Refraction – bending of a wave as it goes from one medium to another (ex: straw in glass of water)
Dispersion – light refracting through a prism is broken into individual colors
Diffraction – bending of a wave around a corner (ex: double slit experiment)
- When a wave goes through a slit it forms a new wave on the other side
- When a wave goes through two slits the two new waves interfere with each other
Interference – two waves interact with one another
Constructive Interference – two waves add together
Destructive Interference – two waves subtract from one another
Standing Wave – wave pattern where two equal and opposite wave continually interfere (used in music)
Node – point of no movement (at normal)
Anti-nodes – points of maximum vibration (crests and troughs)
Wave Travel and State of Matter – waves travel faster when particles are closer together but stop sooner
Resonance – vibration of one particle at a natural frequency causes vibration of the next (ex: guitar)
Doppler Effect – wave moving towards observer increases frequency and away decrease frequency
Electricity and Magnetism
Static Electricity – the accumulation of excess electric charge on an object
Law of Conservation of Charge – charge can be transferred from object to object but not created nor destroyed
Charges exert forces on each other, opposites attract while likes repel
Electric Field – area surrounding every electric charge where force is exerted on other electric charge
- Arrows point in to negative and out from positive
Conductor – a material in which electrons are able to move easily (ex: metals)
Insulator – a material in which electrons are not able to move easily (ex: plastic, wood, rubber, glass)
Charging – transfer of electrons between two objects near one another
Charging by Contact – process of transferring charge by touching or rubbing
Charging by Induction – the rearrangement of electrons on a neutral object caused by a nearby charged object
Static Discharge – transfer of charge between two objects because buildup of static electricity (ex: lightning)
Grounding – connecting an object to earth to prevent unwanted static discharge to another object
Electric Current – the net movement of electric charges in a single direction
- Measured in amperes, 1 ampere = 6,250 million billion electrons flowing past a point each second
Voltage Difference – place where electric charge flows due to difference in electrical charges
- Measured in volts
Dry-Cell Battery – consists of two electrodes surrounded by electrolyte (dry paste) enabling charges to move
Wet-Cell Battery – contains two connected plates of different metals and a conduction solution, usually several wells
Lead-Acid Battery – contains series of 6 wet cells of lead/lead dioxide plates, sulfuric acid solution, ex: car battery
Resistance – tendency of a material to resist the flow of electrons
- Measure in Ohms
Ohm’s Law – current is equal to the voltage difference divided by resistance
Circuit – a closed path that electric current follows
Series Circuit – single pathway for current to flow, “bad Christmas lights”
Parallel Circuit – multiple branches or pathways for current to flow, “good Christmas lights”
Fuse – contains small piece of metal that melts if temperature gets too high, must be replaced
Breaker – contains a small piece of metal that bends if temperature gets too high, must be bent back or “flipped”
Electrical Power – the rate at which electrical energy is converted to another form of energy
Power (watts) = current (amperes) x voltage difference (volts)
Electrical Energy – amount of electrical power consumed in an amount of time, how power companies calculate bill
Electrical Energy (kWh) = power (kW) x time (h)
Magnetism – the properties and interaction of magnet
Magnetic Field – exerts a force on other magnets and other magnetic materials
Stronger closer to poles and closer to magnet
Magnetic Poles – polarized part of magnet (North or South) where magnetic field is strongest
Location is dependent upon the shape of the magnet
Cannot be separated, cut magnet has two new poles
Magnetic Field Direction – point out from North and in to south, compass points along lines toward south
Earth’s Magnetic Field – earth behaves like a giant bar magnet due to iron and nickel core
Poles switch every 10,000 years or so, can be seen through rock layers
Geographic North is Magnetic South, and Geographic South is Magnetic North
Magnetic Materials – Iron, Nickel, Cobalt, and others with electric current flowing
Magnetic Domains – groups of atoms with aligned magnetic poles
Can be realigned by nearness to a magnet
Can be randomized through heating or banging
Electricity and Magnetism
1820 Hans Christian Oersted observes relationship
Electric Current creates a magnetic field
Electromagnet – temporary magnet made by wrapping a wire coil carrying current around an iron core
Electromagnet in a speaker converts electrical energy into mechanical energy and into sound
Galvanometer – devices that use an electromagnet to measure current
Solenoid – a single wire wrapped into a cylindrical wire coil
Electric Motor – device that changes electrical energy into mechanical energy
Includes a wire coil, permanent magnet, and electric current source
Electromagnetic Induction – the generation of a current by a changing magnetic field
Generator – uses electromagnetic induction to transform mechanical energy into electrical energy
The current in coil changes direction each time ends of coil move past the permanent magnet poles
Turbine – large wheel that rotates when pushed by water, wind, or steam, connect to rotating magnets
AC vs DC
Direct Current – “DC” current flowing in only one direction from a battery
Alternating Current – “AC” reverses direction of the current in a regular pattern, used in wall outlets
Transformer – device that increases or decreases voltage of an alternating current
Step Up Transformer – increases voltage as power leaves plant to high powered lines
Low number of primary coil wraps to high number secondary coil wraps
Step Down Transformer – decreases voltage as power leaves high power lines and enter homes
High number of primary coil wraps to low number secondary coil wraps
Earth’s Internal Processes
Notes coming soon…
Weather and Climate
Notes coming soon…
Natural Resources and Sustainable Energy
Notes coming soon…
Animal Anatomy
Tissues – Four main types of animal tissue
1. Epithelial – protects, absorbs, filters, and secretes
a. Often in body coverings and linings, as well as in glands
b. 3 types – squamous, cuboidal, and columnar
i. Squamous – flattened, forms membranes and lines body cavities
ii. Cuboidal – cube shaped, common in glands and ducts
iii. Columnar – column shaped, often provides mucus producing goblets
c. Also defined by layering as Simple, Stratified, Transitional, or Pseudostratified
2. Connective – binds body tissues together, supports body, provides protection
a. Types – Bone, Hyaline, Elastic, Fibrocartilage, Dense, Areolar, Adipose, Reticular
i. Bone – hard matrix supports the body
ii. Hyaline – most common and makes entire fetal skeleton
iii. Elastic – provides elasticity and supports external ear
iv. Fibrocartilage – highly compressible, found in cushion between vertebral discs
v. Dense – Collagen fibers of fibroblasts making tendons and ligaments
vi. Areolar – soft and pliable and functions as packing tissue
vii. Adipose – Fat globules contain lipids which insulate and protect the body, energy reserve
viii. Reticular – interwoven fibers in lymph nodes, spleen, and bone marrow
3. Nervous – transmits nerve impulses throughout the body
4. Muscle – Produces movement
a. 3 types – Skeletal, Cardiac, Smooth
i. Skeletal – Under voluntary control and pulls bone/skin
ii. Cardiac – Involuntary control in heart to pump blood
iii. Smooth – Involuntary control in walls of hollow organs
Organ Systems – There are 11 organ systems in the human body
1. Nervous System
a. Structures – CNS made of brain and spine, PNS made of peripheral nerves
b. Function – recognize and coordinate body’s response to the environment
2. Integumentary System
a. Structures – Skin (epidermis, dermis, hypodermis), hair, nails, sweat and oil glands
b. Function – serves as a barrier against infection and injury, regulate temperature
3. Respiratory System
a. Structures – Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs
b. Function – provide oxygen needed for cellular respiration and removes excess carbon dioxide
4. Digestive System
a. Structures – Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum
b. Function – converts food into simpler molecules used by the cells, absorbs food, eliminates waste
5. Excretory System
a. Structures – skin, lungs, kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
b. Function – eliminate waste products from the body to maintain homeostasis
6. Skeletal System
a. Structures – Bones, cartilage, ligaments, tendons
b. Function – support the body, protect internal organs, allow movement, blood cell formation
7. Muscular System
a. Structures –Skeletal Muscle, smooth muscle, cardiac muscle
b. Function – works with skeleton in voluntary movement, helps to circulate blood and move food
8. Cardiovascular System
a. Structures – Heart, blood, arteries, arterioles, veins, capillaries,
b. Function – bring oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells, fight infection, remove cell waste
9. Endocrine System
a. Structure – Hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries/testes
b. Function – control growth, development, and metabolism, maintain homeostasis
10. Lymphatic/Immune System
a. Structure – White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels
b. Function – helps protect the body from disease, collects fluid lost from blood vessels and returns it
11. Reproductive System
a. Male Structure – Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, urethra, and penis
b. Female Structure – Ovaries, Fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina
c. Male Function – produce reproductive cells
d. Female Function – produce reproductive cells, and nurture and protect embryo
DO NOT USE THE FOLLOWING FOR 2015-2016
Plant Diversity
Plant – multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls made of cellulose and carry out photosynthesis
- 4 types of plants evolved from green algae
1. Bryophytes (Mosses) – nonvascular plants including mosses, hornworts, and liverworts
a. Life cycle that depends on water for reproduction
b. No vascular tissue and must live near water to draw by osmosis
c. Rhizoid – root like structure that anchors plant to the ground and absorbs water/minerals
2. Pterophytes (Seedless Vascular) – earliest vascular plants include ferns, club mosses, and horsetails
a. Vascular tissue is made of xylem and phloem and can move fluids through plant body
b. Fronds – large leaves
c. Rhizome – creeping or underground stem
3. Gymnosperms (cone plants) – seeds are bore directly on surface of cone (naked seed)
a. 4 types – Gnetophytes, Cycads, Ginkgoes, and Conifers
i. Gnetophytes – 70 current species
ii. Cycads – palm-like plants growing in tropical and subtropical places
iii. Ginkgoes – Only one species remaining in Ginkgo biloba
iv. Conifers – 500 known species including pines, spuces, firs, cedars, redwoods
4. Angiosperms (flower plants) – develop unique reproductive organs known as flowers
a. Flowers contain ovaries which surround and protect the seed
b. Fruit – a wall of tissue surrounding a seed
c. 2 Classes – Monocots and Dicots
i. Monocots – single cotyledon, parallel leaf veins, 3x flower petals fibrous roots
ii. Dicots – two cotyledons, branched leaf veins, 4x or 5x flower petals, taproot
d. Life Spans
i. Annual – complete life cycle within one growing season such as wheat and pansies
ii. Biennial – complete life cycle in two years such as parsley and primrose
iii. Perennials – live for more than two years such as maple trees and honeysuckles
Plant Anatomy
Three principal organs of plants are roots, stems, and leaves
1. Roots – absorb water and dissolve nutrients, anchor plant, hold soil in place
a. Two types – taproots and fibrous roots
i. Taproots - long and thick with small secondary roots (dicots)
ii. Fibrous – branch to large extent (monocots)
b. 3 zones at growth – zone of cell division, zone of elongation, zone of maturation
c. Contains Casparian Strip which prevent backflow of water out of the vascular cylinder
i. Enables root pressure to force water up instead of down
2. Stem – support system for the plant body, transport system that carries nutrients, defense against predators
a. Primary growth – growth in length of the plant
b. Secondary growth – growth in width of plant and can produce wood
3. Leaves – main photosynthetic system, controls gas exchange
a. Most photosynthesis occurs in mesophyll which makes up the bulk of the plant
i. Spongey Mesophyll – loosely packed ground tissue allowing gas exchange in leaf bottom
ii. Palisade Mesophyll – tightly pack ground tissue where most photosynthesis occurs
b. Transpiration – the loss of water through its leaves
c. Leaves take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen during photosynthesis
Water is transported into and through the plant via root pressure and uptake, capillary action, and transpirational pull
Four types of plant tissue are dermal, vascular, ground, and meristematic
1. Dermal – “skin” of the plant that protects it
a. Epidermis – outside covering of the plant
b. Endodermis – often covers inside portions of the plant
2. Vascular – “vascular system” of plant that passes water and nutrients throughout plant
a. Xylem – consists of tracheids and vessel elements that pass water
b. Phloem – consists of sieve tube elements and companion cells and passes nutrients
3. Ground – “in-between” tissue of plant that provides its structure
a. Consists of Parenchyma, Collenchyma, and Sclerenchyma
4. Meristematic – reproductive tissue of the plant
a. Found in two places at shoot tip and root tip
b. Cells differentiate as they mature
c. Indeterminate Growth – Plants grow throughout lifetime
Taxonomy
Classification is a way to group organisms in a logical manner so scientists can study the diversity of life
- Currently 1.5 million species have been identified
- Between 2-100 million more need to be discovered and identified
Taxonomy – the science of classifying organisms and assigning universally accepted names
- Common names vary so universal names are assigned
o Universal names are written in Latin and Greek
o Binomial nomenclature – two-naming system
 Created by Carlus Linneaus
 Genus – the first part of the name which identifies a group of similar species
 Species – the second part of the name which identifies the specific organism
 Both Genus and species are italicized, the Genus is capitalized
8 levels of classification – domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
- Domain – Largest taxon
o Bacteria – includes kingdom eubacteria which include most common bacteria
 Single celled prokaryotes
o Archaea – includes kingdom archaebacteria which include bacteria living in extreme environments
 Single celled prokaryotes
o Eukarya – includes kingdoms plantae, animalia, protista, and fungi
 Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes
- Kingdom – 6 Kingdom System
o Eubacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, peptidoglygan in cell wall
 Typical bacterial (ex: Staph, Strep)
o Archaebacteria (formerly ½ of Monera) – Unicellular prokaryotes, lipids in cell wall
 Live in extreme places (ex: Halophiles, Thermophiles)
o Protista – Unicellular or multicellular eukaryotes, can be heterotrophic or photosynthetic
 Any eukaryote that doesn’t fit in plants, animals, or fungi (ex: amoeba)
o Fungi – Multicellular or unicellular eukaryotes that feed off dead or decaying organic matter
 (ex: mushroom, yeast)
o Plantae – multicellular eukaryotic photosynthetic autotrophs, cell walls with cellulose, nonmotile
 4 types: bryophytes, seedless vasculars, gymnosperms, angiosperms
o Animalia – Multicellular eukaryotes, hetertrophic, motile
 Defined by Symmetry
 Bilateral – mirror image when divided down the middle
o Phyla: Platyhelminth, Nematoda, Mollucsa, Annelida, Arthropoda, Chordata
 Radial – can be cut to multiple identical sections
o Phyla: Cnidaria, Echinodermata
 No Symmetry – cannot be divided into identical parts
o Phyla: Porifera
Phylogeny – the study of evolutionary relationships among organisms
- The higher the level of the taxon the further back in time of the common ancestor
- Cladistic Analysis – identifies and considers only new characteristics that arise as lineages evolve
o Cladogram – diagram that shows evolutionary relationships
- The genes of many organisms show important similarities at the molecular level
o The more similar the DNA, the recent shared ancestor
- Molecular Clock – uses DNA comparison to estimate the length of time that 2 species have been evolving
Dichotomous Key – method used to identify an object based on the structures, consist of 2 paired statements
Intro to Biology and Biochemistry
Biology – the science that uses the scientific methods to study living things (Bios=life, logy=study of)
Living things have 8 common characteristics
1. Made of cells
a. A cell is the smallest unit of an organism that is considered alive
b. Unicellular are made of one cell while multicellular are made of multiple cells
2. Reproduce
a. Sexual reproduction – 2 different parents unite to form first cell of new organism
b. Asexual reproduction – a single parent produces offspring that are identical to itself
3. Based on genetic code (DNA)
a. Organisms store what they need to live, grow, and reproduce in genetic code called DNA
4. Grow and develop
a. Growth – an increase in the amount of living material and the formation of new structures
b. Development of all of the changes that take place during the life of an organism
5. Obtain and use materials for energy
a. Metabolism -combination of chemical reactions where an organism builds up/breaks down material
i. Autotroph – organism self-produces food
ii. Heterotroph – organism must seek out food from other places
6. Respond to environment
a. Environment – surroundings including air, water, weather, temperature, and other organisms
b. Stimulus – any condition in the environment that requires and organism to adjust
c. Response – a reaction to a stimulus
7. Maintain a stable internal environment
a. Although conditions outside an organism change, conditions inside tend to remain constant
b. Homeostasis – regulation of organism’s internal environment to maintain conditions for survival
8. Change over time
a. Over many generations, groups of organisms adapt to their environment
b. Evolution – a change in a population of an organism over time
Levels of Organization
Biosphere – The part of the earth that contains all of the ecosystems
Ecosystem – a group of communities and their nonliving parts
Community – a group of populations
Population – a group of organisms of one type that live in the same place and time
Species – a group of organisms
Organism – individual living thing made up of organ systems that are mad of organs that are made of tissues
Organ System – a group of organs working together to perform a specific function
Tissue – multiple cells of the same type functioning together
Cell – smallest unit of structure and function of life
Molecule – groups of atoms, the smallest unit of most chemical compounds
Atom - smallest particle of an element that still retains the properties of it
Microscope – includes parts of ocular, tube, nose, objective, stage clip, stage, diaphragm, light, base, adjustments, arm
Organic vs Inorganic Compounds
Inorganic compounds – do not contain carbon
o Chemicals required that do not contain carbon include water, nitrogen, and oxygen
Organic compounds – contain carbon
Macromolecules – “giant molecules” made from thousands of molecules formed by polymerization
Four basic macromolecules – Carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids, and proteins
1. Carbohydrates – made of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
a. Sugars that provide cell with energy
 Monosaccharide – single simple sugar (ex: glucose)
 Polysaccharide – complex sugars (ex: glycogen)
2. Lipids – macromolecules made mostly of carbon and hydrogen
a. Not soluble in water (ex: fats, oils)
3. Nucleic Acids – contain hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, carbon, and Phosphorus
a. Made of nucleotides
b. Contain genetic information and make up DNA and RNA
i. DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
ii. RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
4. Proteins – contain nitrogen, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
a. Made up of amino acids
i. Amino Acid – composed of carboxylic acids, amines, and side chains
ii. More than 20 different amino acids found in nature
b. Control how fast chemical reactions occur
c. Enzyme – Protein that acts as biological catalyst (speeds up reaction)
i. Lowers activation energy
ii. Induced Fit Model – substrate and enzyme mold together
1. Return to original shape after reaction completes
iii. Substrate – reactant of enzyme-catalyzed reaction
iv. Denaturing – high temp, pH misshapes enzyme, becomes ineffective
Cells
Cell – basic unit of life
Human body is made up of 75-100 trillion cells
Hooke – used early microscope to view cork and discover cells
Van Leeuwenhoek – used microscope to view pond water and saw “critters”
Schleiden – plants are made of cells
Schwann – animals made of cells
Virchow – all cells come from existing cells
Cell Theory
1. All living things made of cells
2. Cells are the basic units of structure and function
3. Cells are produced from existing cells
2 Types of Cells
1. Prokaryote – cell with no nucleus and DNA free floating inside (mostly single-celled)
2. Eukaryote – cell contain nucleus with DNA inside and has membrane-bound organelles (mostly multi-celled)
Cell Membrane – thin flexible barrier around a cell that regulates what enters and exits
Cell Wall – rigid structure located ouside of membrane that provides additional support and protection (plants, fungi)
Plasmodesmata – microscopic channels in cell walls of plant cells enabling transport and communication
Cytoplasm – clear gelatinous fluid inside cell that surrounds organelles
Organelle – structure within a eukaryotic cell that performs important function
Nucleus – largest organelle surrounded by double membrane and contains DNA to make proteins
Nucleolus – organelle with nucleus that makes ribosomes
Nuclear Envelope – Double membrane with nuclear pores that surrounds nucleus
Ribosome – move out of nucleus and produce proteins
Endoplasmic Reticulum – site of cellular chemical reactions that transports proteins to golgi apparatus
Rough ER – covered with ribosomes and makes proteins
Smooth ER – contains no ribosomes and makes lipids
Golgi Apparatus – sorts proteins into packages to be sent to appropriate destinations in or out of cell
Vacuole – temporary storage of materials (one large in plants, many small in animals)
Lysosomes – small organelle filled with enzyme to break down lipids, carbohydrates, waste, and invaders
Plastids – organelle mostly in plants used to store starches, lipids, and contains pigment to give color
Chloroplast – only in green plants and some protists, captures light energy and produces food
Mitochondria – powerhouse of the cell that makes energy
Peroxisome – break down fatty acids and hydrogen peroxide
Cytoskeleton – gives cell support and structure, made of microtubules and microfilaments
Centrioles – microtubules that help with cell division
Cilia – short numerous hair-like projections that increase surface area and aid in movement
Flagella – long tail-like projection that moves cell with whip-like motion
Differences in Plant and Animal Cells
Plant Cell: photosynthesis, chloroplasts, chlorophyll, cell wall, large central vacuole, square, large
Animal Cell: no photosynthesis, no chloroplast, no chlorophyll, no cell wall, many small vacuole, round, small
Cell Boundary and Transport
Phospholipid Bilayer – gives cell membrane flexible structure and strong barrier
Fatty Acid Tail – hydrophobic interior of membrane
Phosphate Head – hydrophilic exterior of membrane
Fluid Mosaic Model – phospholipid bilayer includes transport proteins and channels
Concentration – the mass of solute in a given volume of a solution
Diffusion – particles moving from an area of high concentration to area of low concentration
Dynamic Equilibrium – when concentration of solute is same throughout the system, substances still move in and out
Osmosis – diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane
Solution Types:
1. Isotonic – solution concentration is same as inside the cell
2. Hypertonic – solution concentration is higher than cell, water moves out of cell causing plasmolysis, shrinking
3. Hypotonic – solution concentration is lower than cell, water moves into cell causing cytolysis, swelling
Facilitated Diffusion – membrane channels help diffusion of concentrate across membrane
Transport Protein – allows transport in and out of cell via a transport channel
Active Transport – use of energy (ATP) to transport small molecules against concentration gradient
Endocytosis – process of taking material into the cell by means of enfolding
Phagocytosis – taking in solid food particles
Pinocytosis – taking in liquid
Exocytosis – forcing contents out of cell
Mitosis and Meiosis
Chromatin – long strands of DNA wrapped around protein
Chromosome – rod-shaped structure that forms when a single DNA molecule coils tightly before cell division
Chromatid – one or two copies of each chromosome
Sister Chromatids – two identical copies of a chromosome
Centromere – protein disk that attaches the two chromatids
Cell Cycle – series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide
Regulated by protein cyclin
Cancer – uncontrolled cell replication
Interphase – cell spends most of its life growing and replicating DNA
G1 – cell grows and synthesizes new proteins and organelles
S – chromosomes replicate and DNA synthesis occurs
G2 – organelles and molecules required for cell division are produced
M-Phase – mitosis/meiosis
Cytokinesis – division of cytoplasm during cell division
o Cell Plate forms to make new cell wall when necessary
Mitosis – part of eukaryotic cell division during which the somatic cell nucleus divides, 4 phases, produces replica
Somatic Cell – diploid body cell
Diploid – 2 of each kind of chromosome
1. Prophase – chromosomes coil, centrioles separate, spindle fibers form, nuclear envelope breaks down
2. Metaphase – chromosomes line up in center, each chromosome connects to spindle fiber
3. Anaphase – sister chromatids separate into individual chromosomes and move apart
4. Telophase – chromosomes gather at opposite poles and two new nuclear envelopes form
Produces 2 daughter cells identical to original cell
Meiosis – process by which the number of chromosomes is halved through separation of homologous chromosomes
Homologous Chromosomes – pairs of chromosomes, 1 from each parent, with similar genetic make-up
Diploid to haploid in humans is 46 to 23 chromosomes
Haploid – one of each kind of chromosome
Germ Cell – a type of cell that goes through meiosis to make gametes
Sexual Reproduction – involves the production and fusion of haploid cells
Fertilization – the uniting of male and female gametes producing a zygote
Gamete – sex cell (sperm or egg)
Zygote – produced by union of egg and cell
Phases of Meiosis
Meiosis I:
1. Prophase 1 – First phase of Meiosis I
Chromosomes coil
Nuclear envelope breaks down
Centrioles form and move to poles
Spindles fibers form
Pairs of homologous chromosomes come together and form a tetrad
Crossing Over occurs – homologous chromosomes exchange portions of chromatids
 Happens an average of 2 to 3 times per pair
 Results in new combinations of DNA
 Genetic Recombination – reassortment of chromosomes and genetic information
2. Metaphase 1 – spindle fibers attach to centromere, tetrads line up
3. Anaphase 1 – pairs of chromosomes separate and move to opposite poles
4. Telophase 1 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms
5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells, each with ½ genetic info of original cell
Meiosis II:
1. Prophase 2 – First phase of Meiosis II
Chromosomes coil
Centrioles form and move to poles
Spindles fibers form
Nuclear envelope breaks down
2. Metaphase 2 – spindle fibers attach to centromeres, chromosomes line up single file
3. Anaphase 2 – centromere splits and sister chromatids separate moving to poles
4. Telophase 2 – spindle fibers/centrioles break down, chromosomes uncoil, envelope reforms
5. Cytokinesis – cytoplasm divides into 2 new cells producing 4 total
Meiosis provides genetic variation for 4 daughter cells in 3 ways
1. 2 possibilities when chromosomes line up in Metaphase 1 (8 million possibilities)
2. 8 million sperm x 8 million eggs leads to 70 trillion possible combinations
3. Crossing over leads to basically infinite combinations