Download Attitudes and Persuasion

Attitudes and Persuasion
Michael J. Kalsher
MGMT 4460/6940
Summer 2014
Chapter Objectives
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
It’s important for consumer researchers to understand
the nature and power of attitudes.
Attitudes are more complex than they first appear.
We form attitudes in several ways.
A need to maintain consistency among all of our
attitudinal components motivates us to alter one or
more of them.
We use attitude models to identify specific components
and combine them to predict a consumer’s overall
attitude toward a product or brand.
Chapter Objectives (continued)
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
The communications model identifies several important
components for marketers when they try to change
consumers’ attitudes toward products and services.
The consumer who processes such a message is not
necessarily the passive receiver of information
marketers once believed him to be.
Several factors influence a message source’s
effectiveness.
The way a marketer structures his message determines
how persuasive it will be.
Audience characteristics help to determine whether the
nature of the source or the message itself will be
relatively more effective.
Objective 1 –

It’s important for consumer researchers to understand
the nature and power of attitudes.
The Power of Attitudes

Attitude


A lasting, general evaluation of people, objects, advertisements,
or issues
Attitude object (AO)


anything toward which one has an attitude
can help to determine preferences and actions
Functional Theory of Attitudes
Marketers should emphasize the “dominant” function
(benefits) a product serves for consumers!
UTILITARIAN
FUNCTION:
VALUE-EXPRESSIVE
FUNCTION:
Relates to rewards
and punishments
Expresses consumer’s
values or self-concept
EGO-DEFENSIVE
FUNCTION:
Protect ourselves from
external threats
or internal feelings
KNOWLEDGE
FUNCTION:
Need for order, structure,
or meaning
ABC Model of Attitudes

An attitude has three components

Affect:


Behavior:


person’s intentions to do something with regard to an attitude object
Cognition:


the way a consumer feels about an attitude object
beliefs a consumer has about an attitude object
Hierarchy of Effects

Relative impact/importance of attitude components depends
on a consumer’s motivation toward an attitude object.
Objective 2 –
• Attitudes are more complex than they first
appear.
Objective 3 – Attitude Commitment
• We form attitudes in several ways
INTERNALIZATION
Highest level: deep-seeded attitudes become part
of consumer’s value system
IDENTIFICATION
Mid-level: attitudes formed in order to conform to
another person or group
COMPLIANCE
Lowest level: consumer forms attitude because it
gains rewards or avoids punishments
Degree of commitment is related to level of involvement with the attitude object
Objective 4 – Cognitive Consistency

A need to maintain consistency among all of our
attitudinal components often motivates us to alter one or
more of them.




We value/seek harmony among thoughts, feelings, and
behaviors
We will change components to make them consistent
Explains why evaluations of products change after purchase.
Relates to the theory of cognitive dissonance – we take
action to resolve dissonance when our attitudes and behaviors
are inconsistent
Self-Perception Theory
We use observations of our own behavior to determine what our
attitudes are.
FOOT-IN-THE-DOOR TECHNIQUE
Consumer is more likely to comply with a request if he has
first agreed to comply with a smaller request
LOW-BALL TECHNIQUE
Person is asked for a small favor and is informed after
agreeing to it that it will be very costly.
DOOR-IN-THE-FACE TECHNIQUE
Person is first asked to do something extreme (which he
refuses), then asked to do something smaller.
Social Judgment Theory

We assimilate new information about attitude objects in
light of what we already know/feel



Initial attitude = frame of reference
Latitudes of acceptance and rejection
Messages that fall within the:



Latitude of Acceptance tend to be seen as more consistent with
our position than they really are (the Assimilation Effect).
Latitude of Rejection tend to be seen as farther from one’s
position than they actually are, resulting in a Contrast Effect.
Example: Latitude of Acceptance “shrinks” as consumers
get more involved with an attitude object as in:
Balance Theory


Considers how a person might perceive relations among
different attitude objects and how he might alter attitudes
to maintain consistency
Triad attitude structures:



Perception of attitude object
Perception of other person/object
Relation between other person and attitude object
Balance Theory
Alex
Stop liking Larry?
Larry
Earring
+
Alex
+
Alex
+
Larry
Start liking earrings?
Earring
+
Alex
+
Larry
Earring
Convince yourself that Larry
really hates earrings?
+
+
Larry
Earring
O
Alex
Stop thinking about Larry?
Larry
Earring
7-14
Objective 5 – Multi-Attribute Attitude
Models



Consumer’s attitudes toward an attitude object depend
on beliefs about object attributes
Multi-attribute attitude (MA) models attempt to specify
the different elements that work together to influence
people’s evaluations of attitude objects
MA models specify three elements:

Attributes of Ao (e.g., college)


Beliefs about Ao


Scholarly reputation, cost, weather, social opportunities, co-ops …
Rensselaer: Great reputation, expensive, so-so weather, what social
opportunities??
Importance weights (relative priority of an attribute to a consumer)
The Fishbein Model
The most influential multi-attribute model, it has three components:
Salient Beliefs (about Ao)
Object-Attribute Linkages
Evaluation (of each attribute)
Aijk = ∑ijkIijk

Overall Attitude Score (A) = Sum of beliefs () concerning each attribute
for a brand x the importance rating (I) for each attribute



i = attribute, j = brand, k = consumer
 = belief regarding the extent to which brand j possesses attribute i
I = importance weight given attribute i by consumer k
Saundra’s College Decision
Beliefs (β)
Attribute
Import. (I)
Smith
Princeton
Rutgers
Northland
Academic reputation
6
8
9
6
3
All women
7
9
3
3
3
Cost
4
2
2
6
9
Proximity to home
3
2
2
6
9
Athletics
1
1
2
5
1
Party atmosphere
2
1
3
7
9
Library facilities
5
7
9
7
2
163
142
153
131
Attitude Score
The Extended Fishbein Model:
The Theory of Reasoned Action

Intentions versus behavior

measure behavioral intentions, not just intentions


Social pressure

acknowledge the power of other people in purchasing decision


What happens on the way to the store
Friends and family
Attitude toward buying

measure attitude toward the act of buying, not just the product

The hassle of purchase
Fishbein Model: Marketing Applications


Capitalize on relative advantage
Strengthen perceived product/attribute linkages (convince
consumers their brand has a particular attribute)


Add a new attribute
Influence competitors‘ ratings by emphasizing inferior
attributes—but need to be careful!
Theory of Trying
Suggests that the criterion of behavior in the Fishbein model should be
replaced with trying to reach a goal. Emphasizes that many factors
intervene between intent and performance.
Attitude Change and Interactive
Communications

Persuasion: An active attempt to change attitudes
How Do Marketers Change Attitudes?
Reciprocity
Scarcity
More likely to give if we receive
Desire for things not readily available
Authority
Consistency
Believe authoritative sources
Not contradicting things we said before
Liking
Consensus
Agree with those we admire
Consider what others do before we
decide what to do
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4ZcStM
sss8
Rule of Reciprocity
Description
Requires a person to repay what another person has provided.
1. Rule is extremely powerful, often overwhelming the influence of the other factors.
2. Rule applies even to uninvited first favors, which reduces our ability to decide whom we
wish to owe and putting the choice in the hands of others.
3. Rule can spur unequal exchanges. That is--to be rid of the uncomfortable feeling of
indebtedness (dissonance again!!), an individual will often agree to a request for a
substantially larger favor, than the one he or she first received.
The door-in-the-face technique relies heavily on the pressure to reciprocate concessions.
By starting with a request that is sure to be rejected, the requester can then retreat to a
smaller request--the one that was desired all along. This request is likely be accepted
because it appears to be a concession. The person will also likely agree to future requests.
How to Defend Against?
The best defense is not total rejection of initial offers, but rather, accepting initial favors or
concessions in good faith, while remaining prepared to see through them as tricks! Once they
are seen in this way, there is no longer a need to feel the necessity to reciprocate.
Scarcity
Description
Common in high-pressure sales techniques (e.g., "limited number” or “limited time”).
The scarcity principle holds true for two reasons:
1. Things difficult to attain are typically more valuable. The availability of an item or
experience can serve as a shortcut clue or cue to its quality.
2. When products become less accessible, the freedom to have it may be lost. According
to psychological reactance theory, people respond to the loss of freedom by wanting to
have it more. This includes the freedom to have certain goods and services.
The scarcity principle is most likely to hold true under two optimizing conditions:
1. Scarce items are heightened in value when they are newly scarce (i.e. things that have
become restricted recently have higher value than things that were restricted all along.
2. People are most attracted to scarce resources when they compete with others for them.
How to Defend Against?
Difficult because scarcity pressures have an emotional quality that makes thinking difficult.
However, being aware of the propensity allows us to remain calm and assess the merits of an
opportunity in terms of why we really want and objectively need it.
Authority
Description
Milgram’s obedience studies confirm the strong pressure for compliance when requested by
an authority figure. Strength of the tendency to obey legitimate authorities is derived from
socialization practices that instill a perception that such obedience constitutes correct conduct.
Deference to authorities can manifest as a form of decision-making heuristic or shortcut.
When reacting to authority automatically we tend to do so in response to symbols of authority
(e.g., titles, clothing, automobiles) rather than to the authority itself. Individuals who defer to
authority usually underestimate the effects of authority pressures on their behavior.
How to Defend Against?
Asking the following two questions:
1.Is this authority truly an expert?
Directs attention away from symbols and toward actual evidence for authority status.
2.How truthful can we expect this expert to be?
Advises us to assess the expert's knowledge and trustworthiness. Communicators often
use trust-enhancing tactics in which they first provide some mildly negative information about
themselves (ingratiation). This can be seen as a strategy to create the perception of honesty-making subsequent information seem more credible to those listening.
Commitment and Consistency
Description
We have a desire to look consistent through our words, beliefs, attitudes and deeds.
A consistent orientation affords a valuable shortcut. By being consistent with earlier decisions
we can reduce the need to process all the relevant information in future similar situations.
Instead, we merely need to recall the earlier decision and respond consistently.
The key to using the principles of Commitment and Consistency to manipulate people is held
within the initial commitment. After making a commitment, taking a stand or position, people
are more willing to agree to requests that are consistent with their prior commitment. Many
compliance professionals will try to induce others to take an initial position that is consistent
with a behavior they will later request.
Commitments are most effective when they are active, public, effortful, and viewed as
internally motivated and not coerced. Once a stand is taken, there is a natural tendency to
behave in ways that are consistent with the stand. The need for consistency is a highly potent
tool of social influence, causing people to act in ways contrary to their self interests.
Commitment decisions, even erroneous ones, tend to be self-perpetuating. That is--those
involved may add new reasons and justifications to support the wisdom of commitments they
have already made. Some commitments remain in effect long after the conditions that
spurred them have changed.
Liking
People prefer to say yes to individuals they know and like. This rule helps us to understand
how liking can create influence and how compliance professionals may emphasize certain
factors and/or attributes to increase their overall attractiveness and subsequent effectiveness.
Physical attractiveness—Physical attractiveness engenders a "halo" effect that extends to
favorable impressions of other traits such as talent, kindness, and intelligence. Attractive
people are more successful in getting what they request and in changing others' attitudes.
Similarity-- influences both liking and compliance. We like people who are like us and are
more willing to say yes to their requests, often without much critical consideration.
Praise-- produces liking, and in turn, compliance. It backfires when it is crudely transparent.
Increased familiarity-- repeated contact with a person or thing facilitates liking. Holds true
when contact takes place under positive, not negative circumstances. One positive
circumstance that works well is mutual and successful cooperation.
Association. People who seek influence frequently share in a halo effect by associating
themselves with favorable events and distancing themselves from unfavorable ones.
How to Defend Against?
Awareness of this tool allows us to step back from social interactions to objectively separate
the requester from his or her offer or request . Decide based on the merits of the request!
Social Proof
People often view a behavior as more correct in a given situation--to the degree that we see
others performing it.
Social Proof can be used to stimulate compliance with a request by informing the person that
many other individuals (e.g., role models) are doing this behavior. This tool provides a
shortcut for determining how to behave. However, it can also make people who rely on
this social shortcut vulnerable to the manipulations of others who seek to exploit such
influence through such things as seminars, group introduction dinners, retreats etc.
Social proof is most influential under two conditions:
1. Uncertainty--when people are unsure and the situation is ambiguous they are more likely
to look to the behavior of others for cues and to accept the modeled behavior as correct.
2. Similarity--people are more inclined to follow the lead of others who are similar to
themselves.
How to Defend Against?
Reducing susceptibility to contrived social proofs includes a greater sensitivity to clearly
counterfeit evidence. That is--what others are doing and their behavior should not form a
sole basis for decision-making.
Objective 6 –

The communications model identifies several important
components for marketers when they try to change
consumers’ attitudes toward products and services.
Tactical Communications Options




Who will be source of message?
How should message be
constructed?
What media will transmit
message?
What target market
characteristics will influence ad’s
acceptance?
The Traditional Communications Model
CommunicationHuman
Information
Processing
(C-HIP) Model
Wogalter, DeJoy, & Laughery (1999).
Warnings and Risk Communication.
London: Taylor & Francis.
Wogalter, M.S. (2006). Handbook of
Warnings. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum
Objective 7 –

The consumer who processes a message is not
necessarily the passive receiver of information marketers
once believed him or her to be.
An Updated Communications Model
New Message Formats


M-commerce - marketers promote goods and services via
wireless devices
New social media platforms






Blogging
Video blogging (vlogging)
Podcasting
Tweeting
Virtual worlds
Widgets
Objective 8 –Message Source Effectiveness
Source Characteristics

Credibility, Relevance, Attractiveness, Likeability,
Trustworthiness
Source Characteristic Interactions:
Source and Consumer Characteristics


People concerned about social acceptance/the opinions of others are more
likely to be persuaded by an attractive source
Internally oriented consumers more responsive to a credible source
Source Characteristics as a function of Type of Product

Use experts to promote complex/new/high-risk products
Use celebrities to promote products that help reduce social risk

Use “typical” consumers to promote everyday/low-risk products

impression management products)
(i.e.,
Objective 9 –

The way a marketer structures his/her message
determines how persuasive it will be
Decisions to Make About the Message






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Should we use pictures or words?
How often should message be repeated?
Should it draw an explicit conclusion?
Should it show both sides of argument?
Should it explicitly compare product to competitors?
Should it arouse emotions?
Should it be concrete or based on imagery?
The Message
Table 7.2 Characteristics of Good and Bad Messages
Positive Effects
Negative Effects
Showing convenience of use
Extensive information on
components, ingredients, nutrition
Showing new product/improved
features
Outdoor setting (message gets
lost)
Casting background (i.e., people
are incidental to message)
Large number of onscreen
characters
Indirect comparison to other
products
Graphic displays
How Do We Structure Arguments?


One-sided: supportive arguments
Two-sided: both positive and negative information


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Refutational argument: negative issue is raised, then dismissed
Positive attributes should refute presented negative attributes
Effective with well-educated and not-yet-loyal audiences
Comparative Advertising

Comparative advertising: message compares two+
recognizable brands on specific attributes


“Unlike McDonalds, all of Arby's chicken sandwiches are made
with 100% all-natural chicken”
Negative outcomes include source derogation
Types of Message Appeals
Emotional versus Rational Appeals
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=SfAxUpeVhCg
Sex Appeals
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=QfVpXykZG5c
Humorous Appeals
https://www.youtube.com/w
atch?v=mPwhMoQBg_8
Fear Appeals
https://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=kpKnNIAUl4&list=PLFD30606
13A23D897
Objective 10 –

Audience characteristics help to determine whether the
nature of the source or the message itself will be
relatively more effective.
Elaboration Likelihood Model
ELM: “Steak” or “Sizzle”?
ELM research indicates that relative effectiveness of a
strong message and favorable source depends on
consumers’ level of involvement with advertised
product

Highly involved consumers look for “steak”


Strong message arguments
Those less involved look for “sizzle”

Packaging colors/images, celebrity endorsers
Chapter Summary



Attitudes are very powerful, and they are formed in
several ways.
People try to maintain consistency among their attitudinal
components and their attitudes and behaviors.
The communications model includes several important
components which can be influenced by marketers to
enhance the persuasiveness of the message.