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Course Outline Human Biology – ATAR Year 12 Unit 3 Semester 1 – Homeostasis and Disease RESOURCES: Human Perspectives Units 3 + 4 (Newton and Joyce) WACE STUDY GUIDE (Academic Associates) TERM AND WEEK T1 W1 T1 W2 CONTENT STRANDS AND TEXTBOOK REFERENCES SIS 1 – Identify, propose hypothesis and predict outcomes for investigation SIS 2 – Design investigations SIS 3 – Conduct investigations SIS 4 – Organise, represent and discuss data SIS 5 – Interpret and evaluate texts SIS 6 – Use diagrams and models SIS 7 – Communicate to scientific audiences HP Ch1 Types of investigation p3-5 HP Ch1 Scientific method p5-6 HP Ch1 Planning an investigation p7-9 HP Ch1 Analysing results p9-14 HP Ch1 Reporting p14-15 HP Ch1 Case study p15-16 HP Ch1 Activity 1.1 Validating Pasteur p17 Hp Ch1 Activity 1.2 Mightypharm p18 SU1 – Endocrine glands SU2 – Hormones from endocrine glands SHE3 – Recombinant DNA use ELABORATIONS Exocrine and endocrine gland – categorized by the method of distribution of their products Hormones as products of endocrine gland have a role in controlling coordination by chemical means The mode of action of lipid soluble hormones (steroid) and HOMEWORK AND ASSESSMENTS Complete Ch1 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 2 TASK ONE SCIENCE INQUIRY SKILLS 4% HP Ch2 Endocrine glands p22-23 HP Ch2 Hormones p23-24 T1 W3 SU3 – Pituitary gland secretions SU4 – Hormone interactions with cells HP Ch2 Hypothalamus and pituitary gland p24-26 HP Ch2 Pineal gland p27 HP Ch2 Thyroid gland p27 HP Ch2 Parathyroid glands p27-28 HP Ch2 Thymus p28 HP Ch2 Adrenal glands p29 HP Ch2 Pancreas p29-30 HP Ch2 Gonads p30 HP Ch2 Other endocrine tissues p30-31 HP Act 2.1 Endocrine dysfunction p32 HP Act 2.2 Discovery of insulin p32 T1 W4 SU9 – Nerve impulse transmission HP Ch3 Nerve cells p36-39 HP Ch3 Nerve impulses p40-45 HP Act 3.1 Neuron tour p46 HP Act 3.2 Neuron model p46 HP Act 3.3 Discovery of neurotransmitters p46 water soluble (protein and amine) hormones differ due to their ability to cross the cell membrane Lipid soluble hormones- cross cell membrane, bind with receptors within cell, activate specific genes on the DNA to effect protein synthesis Water soluble hormones- bind with receptors on cell membrane, activate secondary messenger within cell to trigger cascade of cellular reactions The relationship between the hypothalamus and anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland is important in the production of the correct hormone The secretions of the pituitary gland are controlled by the hypothalamus by either neurosecretory cells or blood transport (via hypophyseal portal veins) of releasing or inhibiting factors Each endocrine gland listed below produces specific hormones with specific target organs and specific effects: hypothalamus (ADH, oxytocin, releasing and inhibiting factors), pituitary gland (FSH, LH, GH, TSH, ACTH, prolactin, pancreas (insulin, glucagon), parathyroid (PTH), thyroid (thyroxine,), adrenal glands (adrenaline/noradrenaline, aldosterone, cortisol) The structure and function of sensory (afferent) neurons, interneurons and motor (efferent) neurons allow for the unidirectional pathway of the nerve impulse in a reflex action Ch1 RQ and AYK due Monday Action potential, polarisation, depolarisations, repolarisation, hyperpolarisation, refractory period, threshold, 'all or none' response are used to describe the changes in the cell membrane as a nerve impulse passes along a neuron Electrochemical processes occurring during an action potential depend on movement of ions across the cell Complete Ch3 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 5 Complete Ch2 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 4 Ch2 RQ and AYK due Monday membrane Continuous and saltatory conduction of a nerve impulse is due to the presence of the myelin sheath and influences the speed of transmission of the nerve impulse The process of nerve impulse transmission across a synapse, including the role of neurotransmitters, calcium ions and vesicles is related to the unidirectional pathway of nerve transmission Control of nerve transmission across the synapse is via the control of neurotransmitter molecules and there are consequences if their actions are blocked T1 W5 SU5 – Structure and function of nervous system SU10 – Comparison of nerves and hormones SHE5 – Cell replacement theory HP Ch4 Divisions of the nervous system p50-51 HP Ch4 Autonomic nervous system p52-54 HP Ch4 Comparison of hormonal and nervous coordination p55-56 HP Act 4.1 Autonomic reflex p57 T1 W6 SU6 – Parts of CNS HP Ch5 Protection of the CNS p60-61 HP Ch5 Brain p61-67 Peripheral nervous system is the part of the nervous system that consists of the nerves and ganglia outside of the brain and spinal cord made up of spinal nerves and cranial nerves Afferent division - somatic and visceral sensory neurons Efferent division - somatic and visceral motor neurons Autonomic nervous system - involuntary motor output of smooth and cardiac muscle in organs and blood vessels Somatic nervous system - voluntary motor output of skeletal muscle contraction Sympathetic division involved in ‘fight or flight’ responses which prepares the body for action Parasympathetic division works in opposition to the sympathetic division to maintain the body at normal functioning levels Ch3 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch4 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 6 Nervous and endocrine responses differ in terms of speed of action, duration of action, nature and transmission of message, specificity of message Reasons for having two different types of messages for co- ordination of body functions Central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord - parts and areas of each have specific functions Cerebrum - regions controlling body functions contain sensory and motor areas Cerebellum - subconscious control of posture and locomotion Ch4 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch5 RQ and T1 W7 HP Act 5.1 The brain p68 HP Act 5.2 Phineas Gage p68-69 Medulla oblongata - control of body functions such as breathing and the cardiovascular system Spinal cord - transmission of neural signals between the brain and the rest of the body but also contains neural circuits that can independently control numerous reflexes Meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and the skeleton protect the CNS SU7 – Receptors detect changes SU8 – Reflex arcs SU11 – Homeostasis and tolerance limits Location of receptors: thermoreceptors- hypothalamus skin mucus membranes, abdominal organs osmoreceptors - hypothalamus chemoreceptors - medulla, aorta, carotid artery, pancreas/Islets of Langerhans pain/touch receptors - internal organs and skin Changes detected by receptors external - temperature, pressure/touch, light, sound, chemicals (taste, smell) internal - temperature, body fluid concentration, blood sugar concentration, blood pressure, pH, oxygen levels, etc Types of receptors - use the skin receptors as examples Reflexes and reactions are differentiated in terms of neural pathways The neurons associated with a reflex arc determine the pathway of transmission of the nerve impulse Reflex actions are important in protection of the body Homeostasis maintains bodily function within tolerance limits for efficient functioning Tolerance limits are different for different factors and there are effects on the body if factors are outside these limits The components of the stimulus-response feedback model include: stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector, feedback Body actions and the environment can cause tolerance limits to be breached HP Ch6 Receptors p72-73 HP Ch6 Reflexes p73-75 HP Ch6 Homeostasis p75-77 HP Ch6 Stimulus-response and feedback p77-79 HP Act 6.1 Reflexes p80-81 HP Act 6.2 Reaction time p81-82 HP Act 6.3 More reaction times p82 T1 W8 SU12 – Thermoregulation SU14 – Body fluid homeostasis AYK for Mon wk 7 TASK 2 END OF TOPIC TEST ENDOCRINE AND NERVOUS SYSTEMS 5% Ch5 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch6 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 8 Ch6 RQ and AYK due Monday HP Ch7 Thermoregulation p85-91 HP Ch7 Regulation of composition of body fluids p91-97 HP Act 7.1 Investigating thermoregulation p98 HP Act 7.2 Experiments in a heated room p98 HP Act 7.3 Effect of drinking on urine production p98-99 Temperature regulation involves balancing heat input and output in cold and hot conditions Methods of heat transfer include conduction, convection, radiation and evaporation Metabolism has an important role in heat production Physiological mechanism of thermoregulation include TSH secretion, vasoconstriction/vasodilation, sweat production, shivering Behavioural mechanisms include changing SA:Vol (huddling or spreading out), clothing, activity Stimulus-response feedback models of thermoregulation including include TSH/thyroxine, vasoconstriction/dilation, heat loss/gain (radiation, conduction, convection evaporation), sweating, shivering, metabolic rate (activity levels) and behavioural actions Importance of water in body functions; importance of maintaining body fluid concentrations in terms of osmosis and hydration Osmoregulation is the balance between the water and salt contents of the body fluids and is affected by inputs and outputs from various locations which differs for different environmental conditions eg hot and cold weather, drinking and dehydration Osmoregulation controlled by nervous responses (thirst) and endocrine responses (ADH and aldosterone) Salt and water are ingested via the digestive system and are lost as sweat (for thermoregulation), urine (excretion of metabolic wastes) and elimination from the digestive system (faeces); water is also a byproduct of cellular respiration Structure of the nephron - locations of filtration, re-absorption and active secretion Effects of ADH and aldosterone on the activities of the Complete Ch7 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 9 T1 W9 SU13 – Maintenance of blood sugar levels SU15 – Gas concentration homeostasis SHE1 – Synthetic hormones treat dysfunction SHE2 – Gene therapy treats diabetes HP Ch8 Regulation of blood sugar p103-107 HP Ch8 Regulation of gas concentrations p108-111 HP Ch8 Heart rate and blood pressure p111-113 HP Ch8 Effect of behaviour p113 HP Act 8.1 Breathing rate p114 HP Act 8.2 Investigating behaviour and homeostatic mechanisms p114-115 nephron Stimulusresponse feedback models for water regulation including thirst reflex, ADH and aldosterone The liver, skeletal muscle, pancreas and adrenal glands in involved in the use and storage of glucose in the body Differentiate between Chemicals involved in blood sugar regulation (glucose, glycogen) The processes of regulation (glycogenolysis, glycogenesis, gluconeogenesis) The hormones controlling blood sugar levels (insulin, glucagon, cortisol, adrenaline/epinephrine) Alpha and beta cells in the Islets of Langerhans of the pancreas Stimulus-response feedback models for glucose regulation change after eating and during exercise CO2, Hydrogen ions and O2 concentration are involved in the regulation of breathing rate and depth CO2 and Hydrogen ion levels in the blood are related due to the chemical reaction of CO2 dissolving in water The nervous control of breathing (rate and depth) by the respiratory muscles is by the breathing centre in medulla oblongata Conscious control of breathing may have risks of hyperventilation Stimulus response feedback model for control of gas concentration changes with the level of activity The control of CO2 and O2 are independent of one another Ch7 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch8 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 10 T1 W10 SU11 – Homeostasis and tolerance limits SHE1 – Synthetic hormones treat dysfunction TASK 3 EXTENDED RESPONSE ENDOCRINE DYSFUNCTION 4% HP Ch9 Hormonal causes of disruptions p118-121 HP Ch9 Treatment of hormone deficiencies using synthetic hormones p122-123 HP Ch9 Behavioural causes of disruption p123-124 HP Ch9 Disease disrupts homeostasis p124 T2 W1 HP Act 9.1 Regulation of blood sugar p125-126 HP Act 9.2 Thyroid hormone p126 SU16 – Pathogens and infectious disease SU17 – Transmission of pathogens HP Ch10 Pathogens p129-132 HP Ch10 Transmission of pathogens p132 Ch8 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch9 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 1 A range of pathogens, including but not limited to bacteria and viruses, produce disease (abnormal pathological conditions with specific symptoms) Difference between bacteria and viruses are based on structure, reproduction and size Infectious disease can be transmitted to unrelated hosts whereas non-infectious diseases causes are not eg genetic conditions, cardiovascular disease Different diseases are transferred by each method and control of spread is related to the prevention of transmission: direct/indirect contact: problems of sharing drink bottle and syringes; coughing and sneezing transfer of body fluids: blood transfusion, sexual contact and kissing vectors: mosquitoes, fleas contaminated water/food: problems of using re- Ch9 RQ and AYK due Monday T2 W2 T2 W3 SU18 – Body’s external defences SU19 – Non-specific immune responses HP Ch10 Defences against disease p132-133 HP Ch10 Non-specific defences p133-137 HP Ch10 Lymphatic system and non-specific defence p137-138 HP Ch10 Helping the body’s non-specific defences p138-139 HP Act 10.1 Fever p140-141 HP Act 10.2 Reye’s syndrome p141 HP Act 10.3 Skin bacteria p141-142 SU21 – Passive and active immunity SU22 – Specific immune response HP Ch11 Lymphocytes and macrophages p145 HP Ch11 Specific defences p145-151 HP Ch11 Types of immunity p151-152 T2 W4 SU20 – Antivirals and antibiotics SHE 3 – Recombinant DNA use cycled water (have all viruses been removed) or potable water sources during flood; sources of food contamination The body has physical barriers depending on the location within the body: skin - lysozyme, sebum, layers of skin digestive tract - pH, vomiting, diarrhoea urogenital tract - pH, urine flow respiratory system - nostril hair, cilia, mucus, sneezing, ear - hairs, cerumen eye - tears, blinking, eyelashes The inflammatory response involves mast cells, histamine, heparin changing blood flow and delivering macrophages to the site of damage Ongoing effects of passive and active immunity differ Differentiate between antigen and antibody; lymphocyte and macrophage - and the specificity of their actions The site of production and roles of B and T lymphocytes are specific in the active immune response Antibody mediated (humoral) response requires B cells/plasma cells to recognise the antigens and produce antibodies which inactivate or destroy antigens Cell mediated response requires the actions of T lymphocytes (Killer T cells, Helper T cells and Suppressor T cells) Primary and secondary responses to exposure of an antigen (or vaccine) differ due to the presence of memory cells The causes and benefits of a fever (including role of hypothalamus) depend on the effects of temperature on viruses Vaccines can be made of attenuated or low virulent forms of pathogens Complete Ch10 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 3 Ch10 RQ and AYK due Monday TASK 4 END OF TOPIC TEST SHE 4 – Participation in immunisation HP Ch11 Vaccines p152-155 HP Ch11 Issues with production and use of vaccines p156-157 HP Ch11 Participation p158 HP Ch11 Antibiotics p158-160 HP Ch11 Antivirals p161 HP Ch11 Act 11.1 Briefing paper p161 HP Ch11 Act 11.2 Animal testing in manufacture of vaccines p161 HP Ch11 Act 11.3 Supporting immunisation programs p161 T2 W5 T2 W6 T2 W7 REVISION DNA technology is used to produce bacteria that produce vaccines (transgenesis) Antibiotic and anD antiviral drugs are only effective in controlling their specific pathogens The mode of action of antibiotics and antiviral drugs differ due to the nature of the pathogen Antibiotic resistance has a range of causes and has implications for future effectiveness of that antibiotic HOMEOSTASIS AND RESPONSE TO INFECTION 5% Complete Ch11 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 5 Ch11 RQ and AYK due Monday TASK 5 SEMESTER ONE EXAM 20% TASK 5 SEMESTER ONE EXAM 20% Human Biology ATAR Year 12 Unit 3 Semester 1 – Homeostasis and disease This unit explores the nervous and endocrine systems and the mechanisms that help maintain the systems of the body to function within normal range, and the body’s immune responses to invading pathogens. The complex interactions between body systems in response to changes in the internal and external environments facilitate the maintenance of optimal conditions for the functioning of cells. Feedback systems involving the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine system and behavioural mechanisms maintain the internal environment for body temperature, body fluid composition, blood sugar and gas concentrations within tolerance limits. The structure and function of the endocrine system, including the glands, hormones, target organs and modes of action, can demonstrate the many interactions that enable the maintenance of optimal cellular conditions. The structure and function of the autonomic nervous system, and its relationship with other parts of the nervous system, can be linked to the roles each play in maintaining homeostasis of internal environmental conditions. Comparing and contrasting the endocrine and nervous systems can highlight the roles of each in homeostasis. Humans can intervene to treat homeostatic dysfunction and influence the quality of life for individuals and families. Different body systems have mechanisms, including physical and chemical barriers that protect the body against invasion by pathogens. The non--specific actions of the body can be aided by the use of antibiotics and antiviral drugs to counter the invasion or reduce the effect of the pathogen. Specific resistance mechanisms involve the recognition of invading pathogens and produce long--lasting immunity. Vaccinations can result in immunity to infection by exposure to attenuated versions of the pathogens. Unit content An understanding of the Year 11 content is assumed knowledge for students in Year 12. It is recommended that students studying Unit 3 and Unit 4 have completed Unit 1 and Unit 2. This unit includes the knowledge, understandings and skills described below. This is the examinable content. Science Inquiry Skills (SIS) 1. identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes 2. design investigations, including the procedure(s) to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including animal ethics 3. conduct investigations, including the collection of data related to homeostasis and the use of models of disease transmission, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data 4. represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including the use of mean, median, range and probability; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions 5. interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence, including interpreting confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments 6. select, use and/or construct appropriate representations, including diagrams, models and flow charts, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions 7. communicate to specific audiences, and for specific purposes, using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE) 1. Synthetic hormones may be developed to control or treat endocrine dysfunction including diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism, to improve the quality of life for individuals 2. Gene therapy could be used to treat a range of diseases including diabetes mellitus 3. Hormones and vaccines are developed using recombinant DNA and associated biotechnological techniques 4. The decision to participate in immunisation programs can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in which it is considered 5. Cell replacement therapy has the potential to treat nervous system disorders including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s diseases Science Understanding (SU) 1. The hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas, thymus, gonads, pineal and adrenal glands are endocrine glands found in the human body. 2. Hormones secreted from the hypothalamus, pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, pancreas and adrenal glands are involved in homeostasis by affecting specific target organs. 3. The secretions of the pituitary gland are controlled by the hypothalamus through transport of hormones either via nerve cells or the vascular link between them. 4. Hormones can be lipid-- soluble and able to cross cell membranes to bind with and activate intracellular receptors or, water--soluble and able to bind with and activate receptors on cell membranes and require secondary messengers to affect cell functioning. 5. Structure and function of the divisions of the nervous system can be observed and compared at different levels in detecting and responding to the changes in the internal and external environments including: central--peripheral afferent--efferent autonomic--somatic sympathetic-- parasympathetic 6. The parts of the central nervous system, including the brain (cerebrum, cerebellum, medulla oblongata, ypothalamus, corpus callosum) and spinal cord, have specific roles in the coordination of body functions and are protected by the meninges and cerebrospinal fluid. 7. Different receptors detect changes in the internal and external environments including thermoreceptors, osmoreceptors, chemoreceptors and receptors for touch and pain. 8. The reflex arc comprises of specially structured neurons including sensory, inter-- and motor neurons, to transmit information from the receptor to the effector to respond rapidly to stimuli 9. Transmission of nerve impulses is via electro-chemical changes that occur at the generation of the impulse, the propagation of the impulse along the nerve fibre and the transfer of the impulse across the synapse. 10. The nervous and endocrine systems work together to coordinate functions of all body systems but differ in terms of: speed of action duration of action nature and transmission of the message specificity of message 11. Homeostatic processes involve nerves and hormones in maintaining the body’s internal environment within tolerance limits through the control of metabolism and physiological and behavioural activities. 12. Thermoregulation occurs by the control of heat exchange and metabolic activity through physiological and behavioural mechanisms. 13. Blood sugar levels are maintained by controlling of sugar uptake, its storage and release by cells and use in metabolism; these processes involve the hormones of the pancreas and adrenal glands. 14. Body fluid concentrations are maintained by balancing water and salts via the skin, digestive system and the kidneys, which involve the actions of ADH and aldosterone on the nephron, and the thirst reflex. 15. Gas concentrations are controlled by balancing the intake of oxygen and the removal of carbon dioxide via the lungs, through the actions of the medulla oblongata and the autonomic nervous system 16. Infectious diseases caused by invasion of pathogens in the form of viruses and bacteria can be transmitted from one host to another 17. Transmission of pathogens occurs by various mechanisms including through: direct and indirect contact transfer of body fluids disease-specific vectors contaminated food and water 18. The body’s external defence mechanisms against pathogens include features of the: skin digestive tract urogenital tract respiratory system the ear the eye 19. Pathogens that enter the body are targeted by non-specific immune responses of inflammation and fever. 20. Antiviral and antibiotic drugs are used for treating infections and differ in their specificity to pathogens. 21. Passive immunity can be acquired as antibodies gained through the placenta or antibody serum injections; active immunity can be acquired through natural exposure to the pathogen or the use of vaccines. 22. Immunity is gained through the exposure to specific antigens by the production of antibodies by B lymphocytes and the provision of cell mediated immunity by T lymphocytes; in both cases memory cells are produced Course outline Human Biology – ATAR Year 12 Unit 4 Semester 2 – Human variation and revolution RESOURCES: Human Perspectives Units 3+4 (Newton and Joyce) WACE STUDY GUIDE (Academic Associates) TERM AND WEEK T2 W8 CONTENT STRANDS AND TEXTBOOK REFERENCES SU1 – Mutations are source of variation SU2 – Genotypes produce phenotypes SU3 – Mutations introduce new alleles HP Ch12 Gene pools p166 HP Ch12 Mutations p166-167 HP Ch12 Mutagens p167 HP Ch12 Somatic and germline mutations p167 HP Ch12 Effects of mutations p167-171 HP Ch12 Activity 12.1 Incidence of cancer p172 HP Ch12 Activity 12.2 Venusians p173-174 ELABORATIONS Mutations as a permanent change to the sequence of DNA (genetic code) influence protein synthesis and cause changes in cellular chemicals (enzymes, hormones) or structures Mutagens of different types damage the DNA or affect DNA replication or meiosis Differentiate between gene and chromosome mutations Chromosome mutations: deletion, inversion, translocation, non-disjunction can result during the processes of meiosis Gene mutations: deletion, substitution, insertion can arise during DNA replication Combinations of alleles from dominance, codominance, sex-linkage, multiple alleles and polygenic inheritance of characteristics produce a variety of phenotypes Variation in genotype may result in phenotypes which provide a survival advantage e.g. sickle cell anaemia trait provides a survival advantage to individuals HOMEWORK AND ASSESSMENTS Complete Ch12 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 9 T2 W9 SU4 – Representing populations as gene pools SU5 – Gene pools are dynamic HP Ch14 Changes to allele frequencies in gene pools p196-201 HP Ch14 Activity 14.1 A model of genetic drift T2 W10 SU6 – Incidence of genetic diseases SU7 – Natural selection SU8 – Mechanisms underpinning theory of in malaria affected areas Mutations may produce new alleles which may be advantageous or disadvantageous e.g. variation in human skin pigmentation - light pigmentation an advantage in populations living far from equator (Vit D) but a disadvantage to those living close to equator (melanoma) Gene pool is the sum of all alleles carried by members of a population Gene pools may vary in their composition at different times and or at different locations e.g. ABO blood groups in indigenous populations Impact of mutations on gene pools is affected by whether it is a germ line or somatic mutation Founders Effect - influence of a small, non- representative gene pool on the frequency of alleles in subsequent generations compared to the original population e.g. Ashkenazi Jews, Bounty mutineers Random Genetic Drift - influence of random events such mating choices, survival of offspring and effects of environment on the population gene pool; will affect small populations more than large populations Effects of migration on gene flow between populations influencing the proportions of alleles in each population Effects of geographical, social, cultural barriers to gene flow within and between gene pools Factors leading to certain undesirable genetic conditions remaining in particular human populations (gene pools): Thalassemia, Sickle cell anaemia (both in the heterozygous form Ch12 RQ and AYK due Monday TASK SIX EXTENDED RESPONSE MUTATIONS IN evolution by natural selection HP Ch14 Genetic diseases p201-202 HP Ch14 The theory of evolution through natural selection HP Ch14 Activity 14.2 Sickle-cell haemoglobin HP Ch14 Activity 14.3 Natural selection T3 W1 SU9 – Biotechnological techniques SHE1 – Developments in biotechnology give access to genetic information SHE2 – Biotechnology gives evidence of give some sort of survival advantage in areas of malaria) and Tay-Sachs disease Natural selection as a result of the struggle for survival under particular conditions The concept of natural selection is supported by evidence from artificial selection eg breeding of particular strains or breeds in agriculture - cattle, sheep, horses Selection works on phenotypes - explains why some disadvantageous recessive alleles still exist in the population Variation – from processes of meiosis, mutations and epigenetics Struggle for existence – being able to survive long enough to reproduce passing the alleles onto the next generation Isolation – no gene flow between similar gene pools (populations), due to geographic, cultural, behavioural barriers Differential selection – when the probability of survival for a particular phenotype is greater than others in the population allowing more of this phenotype to survive and reproduce, therefore leaving more offspring with the advantageous allele in the next generation When the gene flow between similar populations is restored, interbreeding does not occur thus there are two species rather than populations Processes involved in polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) denaturing, hybridisation and synthesis of DNA involving the change in temperature and use of primers and DNA polymerase HUMAN EVOLUTION 5.5% Complete Ch14 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 1 Ch14 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch13 RQ and Gel electrophoresis for the purpose of DNA sequencing separation of DNA fragments is due to electrical HP Ch13 The human genome p177-186 charge and the size of the DNA fragments HP Ch13 The identification of hereditary DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent diseases p187 nucleotides for easy identification HP Ch13 Gene therapy p188 DNA is cut into fragments using restriction HP Ch13 Cell replacement therapy and tissue enzymes engineering p189 DNA sequencing by Sanger method and be aware of new technologies to sequence faster and more HP Ch13 Activity 13.1 Electrophoresis simulation accurately evolutionary relationships T3 W2 p190 HP Ch13 Activity 13.2 Restriction enzymes p190191 HP Ch13 Activity 13.3 Investigating biotechnological techniques p191 Processes involved in polymerase Chain Reaction SIS3 – Conduct investigations including the use (PCR) of PCR and gel electrophoresis T3 W3 SU10 – Comparative DNA studies HP Ch15 Comparative studies in biochemistry p217-223 denaturing, hybridisation and synthesis of DNA involving the change in temperature and use of primers and DNA polymerase Gel electrophoresis for the purpose of DNA sequencing separation of DNA fragments is due to electrical charge and the size of the DNA fragments DNA fragments are tagged with fluorescent nucleotides for easy identification DNA is cut into fragments using restriction enzyme Evidence for evolution gained from comparative studies of DNA, retroviruses and proteins (including ubiquitous proteins) Comparative anatomy such as embryonic AYK for Mon wk 2 TASK SEVEN SCIENCE INQUIRY TECHNIQUES IN BIOTECHNOLOGY 6% Ch13 RQ and AYK due Monday Biotech box booked Complete Ch15 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 4 HP Ch15 Comparative studies in anatomy p223-227 HP Ch15 Geographical distribution p228-229 HP Ch15 Evolution and creation p229 HP Ch15 Activity 15.1 Amino acid sequencing T3 W4 SU11 – Fossil record is incomplete SU12 – Sequencing the fossil record HP Ch16 Fossil formation p236 HP Ch16 Discovery of fossils p236 T3 W5 SU13 – relative and absolute dating techniques SIS3 – conduct investigations using techniques of relative and absolute dating development, homologous structures and vestigial organs Similarities and differences in such evidence suggests evolutionary relatedness Phylogenetic trees use bioinformatics to show the relationships between groups of organisms based on genetic information Fossilisation requires the remains of organisms or their imprints to be covered and remain undisturbed during rock formation around them Factors affecting fossil formation including type or organism - hard parts fossilise between than soft body parts soil pH, mineral content of soil weathering and erosion Limitations in the current fossil record incomplete fossils not all organisms had representatives in the fossil record not all conditions produce fossils of organisms remains those not discovered or recognized Relative dating – no age given, only as comparison to other fossils as before or after or at the same time Absolute dating – dates with accuracy range given Each of these is suitable to particular fossil types The geological timeline – chronological order of geological formations; can be sectioned into different time sections related to fossil type present Relative dating techniques including stratigraphy – law of superposition; rock strata correlation index fossils – fossils with a wide TASK EIGHT END OF TOPIC TEST MUTATIONS AND GENE POOLS 7.5% Ch15 RQ and AYK due Monday TASK NINE EXTENDED RESPONSE BIOTECHNOLOGY TECHNIQUES AND HP Ch16 Dating of fossils p237-242 HP Ch16 Phylogenetic trees p242 HP Ch16 The geological time scale p243-244 HP Ch16 Problems with the fossil record p245 HP Ch16 Activity 16.1 Radioisotope methods of dating p245-246 HP Ch16 Activity 16.2 Stratigraphy HP Ch16 Activity 16.3 Phylogenetic trees T3 W6 SU14 – Humans as great apes HP Ch17 What are primates p252-255 HP Ch17 Evolutionary trends within the primates p256-257, p261-262, p264 (digits and size of cerebral cortex only) HP Ch17 Activity 17.2 Mobility of the human thumb p266-267 T3 W7 SU15 – Evolutionary pathways for hominids HP Ch18 Evolutionary trends p272-281 HP Ch18 Activity 18.1 Hominin skulls p282 distribution and with a limited time span Absolute dating techniques: radiocarbon – relies on the known and constant radioactive decay rate of carbon-14, that the exchange of carbon between organisms and their environment stops at death, and the carbon-14 of the atmosphere is known potassium--argon dating relies on the known and constant breakdown of radioactive potassium to produce inert argon gas which is trapped in the fossil Limitations of these particular dating methods delineate the fossil materials on which they can be used and the age of the fossil being dated; there are other methods that can be used to also provide corroborating evidence of the age of fossils Classification groups of hominids (Family level Hominidae - of classification including great apes and humans) and hominins (Tribe level Hominini – of classification includes only modern and ancestral humans) Features of primates Trends in features in the primate groups in the differences listed Adaptations to bipedalism and quadrupedalism – differences in the skull, spine, pelvis, legs and feet Features (temporal and geographical distribution, cranial capacity, jaw/skull features, post cranial skeleton,) of the following species and compare with modern humans and great apes: o Australopithecus afarensis HUMAN EVOLUTION 5.5% Complete Ch16 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 6 Ch16 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch17 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 7 Ch17 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch18 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 8 HP Ch18 Activity 18.2 Cranial capacity and phylogenetic trees p283 HP Ch18 Activity 18.3 Upright stance and striding gait p283-284 T3 W8 SU15 – Evolutionary pathways for hominids T3 W9 HP Ch19 Effect of environment on hominin evolution p288 HP Ch19 Australopithecines p289-293 HP Ch19 Homo habilis p294-295 HP Ch19 Homo erectus p295-297 HP Ch19 Transition to modern humans p297-299 HP Ch19 Activity 19.1 Evidence for human evolution p300 HP Ch19 Activity 19.2 Comparison of human skulls p300-302 SU16 – Tool use in hominid species HP Ch20 Australopithecine culture p305-306 HP Ch20 Early Homo p306 HP Ch20 Culture of Homo erectus p306-308 HP Ch20 Neanderthal culture p308-309 HP Ch20 Transition to modern humans p309-312 HP Ch20 The Denisovans p313-314 Australopithecus africanus Paranthropus robustus Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens Possible evolutionary pathways showing the location and time span in the sequence of different fossil hominin groups Features (temporal and geographical distribution, cranial capacity, jaw/skull features, post cranial skeleton,) of the following species and compare with modern humans and great apes: o Australopithecus afarensis o Australopithecus africanus o Paranthropus robustus o Homo habilis o Homo erectus o Homo neanderthalensis o Homo sapiens Possible evolutionary pathways showing the location and time span in the sequence of different fossil hominin groups Tools culture are identified by materials used in manufacture, the specificity of tools and complexity of tool making techniques for each of these Homo species Cultural advances included the use of fire, art and spirituality, burial practices, hunter-gatherer lifestyle, agricultural lifestyle and domestication of animals Each Homo group is associated with a culture: Oldowan – Homo habilis o o o o o o Ch18 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch19 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 9 Ch19 RQ and AYK due Monday Complete Ch20 RQ and AYK for Mon wk 10 HP Ch20 The Red Deer Cave people p314-315 HP Ch20 The beginnings of agriculture p315-316 HP Ch20 Modern humans p316-317 HP Ch20 Why study human origins p317 Acheulean – Homo erectus Mousterian – Homo neanderthalensis Aurignacian, Soltrean, Magdalenian – Homo sapiens HP Ch20 Activity 20.1 Are humans unique p318 HP Ch20 Activity 20.2 Chimpanzees, Neanderthals and humans p318 T3 W10 EXAM REVISION Use past exam questions to write 1. Extended response answers 2. Short answer responses 3. Multi-choice answers TERM 3 HOLIDAYS TERM 3 HOLIDAYS TASK TEN END OF TOPIC TEST EVOLUTION AND HOMINID TRENDS 7.5% Ch20 RQ and AYK due Monday TASK ELEVEN SEMESTER TWO EXAM 30% TASK ELEVEN SEMESTER TWO EXAM 30% Human Biology ATAR Year 12 Unit 4 Semester 2 – Human variation and evolution This unit explores the variations in humans in their changing environment and evolutionary trends in hominids. Humans can show multiple variations in characteristics due to the effect of polygenes or gene expression. The changing environment can influence the survival of genetic variation through the survival of individuals with favourable traits. Gene pools are affected by evolutionary mechanisms, including natural selection, migration and chance occurrences. Population gene pools vary due to interaction of reproductive and genetic processes and the environment. Over time, this leads to evolutionary changes. Gene flow between populations can be stopped or reduced by barriers. Separated gene pools can undergo changes in allele frequency, due to natural selection and chance occurrences, resulting in speciation and evolution. Evidence for these changes comes from fossils and comparative anatomy and biochemical studies. A number of trends appear in the evolution of hominids and these may be traced using phylogenetic trees. The selection pressures on humans have changed due to the control humans have over the environment and survival. Unit content An understanding of the Year 11 content is assumed knowledge for students in Year 12. It is recommended that students studying Unit 3 and Unit 4 have completed Unit 1 and Unit 2. This unit includes the knowledge, understandings and skills described below. This is the examinable content. Science Inquiry Skills 1. identify, research and construct questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes 2. design investigations, including the procedure(s) to be followed, the materials required, and the type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider research ethics, including animal ethics 3. conduct investigations, including the use of virtual or real biotechnological techniques of polymerase chain reaction (PCR), gel electrophoresis for deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)sequencing, and techniques for relative and absolute dating, safely, competently and methodically for valid and reliable collection of data 4. represent data in meaningful and useful ways; organise and analyse data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; discuss the ways in which measurement error, instrumental accuracy, the nature of the procedure and sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions 5. interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate models, processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments 6. select, use and/or construct appropriate representations, including phylogenetic trees, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions 7. communicate to specific audiences, and for specific purposes, using appropriate language, nomenclature, genres and modes, including scientific reports Science as a Human Endeavour (SHE) 1. developments in biotechnology have increased access to genetic information of species, populations and individuals, existing now or in the past, the interpretation and use of which may be open to ethical considerations 2. developments in the fields of comparative genomics, comparative biochemistry and bioinformatics have enabled identification of further evidence for evolutionary relationships, which help refine existing models and theories Science Understanding (SU) 1. mutations in genes and chromosomes can result from errors in DNA replication, cell division or from damage caused by mutagens 2. different genotypes produce a variety of phenotypes, which are acted on differently by factors in the environment, producing different rates of survival 3. mutations are the ultimate source of variation introducing new alleles into a population: new alleles may be favourable or unfavourable to survival 4. populations can be represented as gene pools that reflect the frequency of alleles of a particular gene; gene pools can be used to compare populations at different times or locations 5. gene pools are dynamic, with changes in allele frequency caused by: mutations differing selection pressures random genetic drift, including the founder effect changes in gene flow between adjoining groups 6. the incidence of genetic diseases in particular populations illustrates the effects of different factors on the dynamics of gene pools, including the incidence of Tay-Sachs disease, thalassemia and sickle-cell anaemia 7. natural selection occurs when factors in the environment confer a selective advantage on specific phenotypes to enhance survival and reproduction 8. the mechanisms underpinning the theory of evolution by natural selection include inherited variation, struggle for existence, isolation and differential selection, producing changes to gene pools to such an extent that speciation occurs 9. biotechnological techniques provide evidence for evolution by using PCR (to amplify minute samples of DNA to testable amounts), bacterial enzymes and gel electrophoresis to facilitate DNA sequencing of genomes 10. comparative studies of DNA (genomic and mitochondrial), proteins and anatomy, provide additional evidence for evolution; genomic information enables the construction of phylogenetic trees showing evolutionary relationships between groups 11. the fossil record is incomplete and cannot represent the entire biodiversity of a time or a location due to many factors that affect fossil formation, the persistence of fossils and accessibility to fossilised remains 12. sequencing a fossil record requires a combination of relative and absolute dating techniques to locate fossils onto the geological timeline 13. both relative dating techniques, including stratigraphy and index fossils, and absolute dating techniques, including radiocarbon dating and potassium-argon dating, have limitations of application 14. humans as primates are classified in the same taxonomic family as the great apes. The species within the family are differentiated by DNA nucleotide sequences, which brings about differences in: relative size of cerebral cortex mobility of the digits locomotion – adaptations to bipedalism and quadrupedalism prognathism and dentition 15. determining relatedness and possible evolutionary pathways for hominids uses evidence from comparisons of modern humans and the great apes with fossils of: Australopithecus afarensis 16. Australopithecus africanus Paranthropus robustus Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens tool use is seen in a number of hominid species and the study of these tools provides important insight into the evolution of the human cognitive abilities and lifestyles; trends are seen in the changes in manufacturing techniques and the materials used in these tool cultures of: Homo habilis Homo erectus Homo neanderthalensis Homo sapiens